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(2001, 1, '2024-06-08 16:35:15', '2024-06-08 11:05:15', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Hazards &amp; Risks in Construction Projects</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Hazard - </strong>A situation or event whose realization has the potential for damage to human life, society, the economy, or the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Risk - </strong>Risk is the uncertainty of loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Risk = Hazard x Probability of Occurrence</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The hazard is measured in terms of severity. The probability of occurrence of a catastrophic hazard is extremely low; therefore, the risk may still be acceptable. If the probability of a marginal hazard is extremely high, the risk may not be acceptable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Uncertainty of loss covers a range of losses from life to property and from liability to statutory compensations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This uncertainty has two distinct features.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The uncertainty of when it will occur.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The uncertainty of how severe the loss will be.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Insurance - </strong>Insurance is concerned with financial compensation in the event of a loss. Hence, the risk may be further defined as the possibility of a financial loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance is primarily concerned with <strong>pure risks</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pure risk</strong> is a risk in which there is only a possibility of loss or no loss and there is no possibility of gain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Pure risk refers to risks beyond human control that result in a loss or no loss with no possibility of financial gain.&nbsp;Natural disasters such as f</em><em>ires, and floods, are categorized as pure risk. Also, some unforeseen incidents, such as acts of terrorism or untimely deaths may be identified as pure risks.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Speculative risk</strong> differs from pure risk because there is the possibility of profit or loss. This characterizes most financial investments. Most speculative risks are uninsurable because they are undertaken willingly in the hope of profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pure risk</strong> is insurable, because the law of large numbers can be applied to forecast future losses, and, therefore, insurance companies can calculate what premium to charge based on expected losses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The law of large numbers, in probability and statistics, states that as a sample size grows, its mean gets closer to the average of the whole population. This is due to the sample being more representative of the population as the sample becomes larger.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, Speculative Risks have more varied conditions that make estimating future losses difficult or impossible. Also, speculative risk will generally involve a greater frequency of loss than a pure risk. For instance, people do many things to protect their lives or their property, but people willingly engage in speculative risks, such as investing in the stock market, to make a profit; otherwise, a person can avoid most speculative risks simply by avoiding the activity that gives rise to it.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Perils - </strong>Risk is sometimes used to mean the Peril insured against and more often to mean the person or property protected and should be considered in the relevant context to avoid confusion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Risk is the chance of loss, and peril is the direct cause of the loss. If a house burns down, then fire is the peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The terms Peril and Hazard are sometimes used interchangeably with each other and with Risk. However, it is important to note the different meanings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Risk transfer through Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>People face risks in their daily lives. If unprotected, damage caused by the risks could sometimes cause harm and losses that might affect lives, occupations, businesses, and assets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance companies are prepared to provide such protection by taking over many of the critical risks people face at affordable costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mechanism behind the insurance concept is;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Risk transfer from one party to another at an affordable cost,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Probability of occurrence of a loss,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Operation of a common pool (fund) to share the losses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Payment of an equitable contribution to the pool.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the point of view of the public, insurance is an economic risk transfer mechanism.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insurance policy is a Contract of insurance between a party called \"insured or assured” and a party who takes over the risk called “Insurer” for a financial consideration called \"Premium\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insurer does not guarantee that the event insured will not happen. He operates on the probability of transforming the risks to a loss on a \"may or may not occur basis\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will also not guarantee that a loss suffered by the insured will be fully paid back. This is because of imitations in the insurance policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Factors that cause losses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Perils and hazards are the two factors that cause losses. Examples of perils are fire, lightning, cyclones, floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, burglary, thefts, terrorist activity, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hazard is a condition that may create or increase the chances of a loss arising from a Peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Physical Hazard</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A hazard is anything that either causes or increases the likelihood of a loss. For instance, gas furnaces are a hazard for carbon monoxide poisoning. A physical hazard is a physical condition that increases the possibility of a loss. Thus, smoking is a physical hazard that increases the likelihood of a house fire and illness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Moral hazard</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Moral hazards arise from human involvement in a risk. The Client may be a cunning and dishonest person and may intentionally cause loss (often fire) or enhance a loss (after initial damage) and try to claim against the insurer. This hazard is not obvious at the inception of a claim but may emerge during the period of insurance or at the time of a claim. Moral hazards are losses that result from dishonesty. Thus, insurance companies suffer losses because of fraudulent or inflated claims.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Common features of insurable Risks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. It is concerned with pure risk only. Risks should not involve any prospect of gain or profit. Thus losses incurred in trading are not insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The event causing loss must have some sort of uncertainty. The uncertainty may be either in the fact that the happening of the event depends on accidental (fortuitous) causes, which means it may or may not happen at all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. A person can only insure something if he is likely to suffer financially if anything happens to it. The insured must have an insurable interest in what he intends to insure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Anything that is against Public policy (what society considers the right and normal thing to do) is not insurable. For example, spot fines imposed by the Police for traffic offenses are not insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Losses of a high or inevitable catastrophic nature caused by war may not be insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Certain physical occurrences like climatic or tidal conditions, cyclones, floods, earthquakes, etc., may also not be insurable in certain geographic locations due to inevitable nature or high frequency of occurrence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. The premium should be reasonable compared to the risk being insured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Principles of Construction Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. <strong>Utmost good faith</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As one party to a proposed insurance (the insurer) contract relies upon the other party (the insured) for information about the risk, the rule of utmost good faith applies. This is the duty of the proposer to reveal all material facts about the proposed risk. A material fact would influence the mind of a prudent underwriter in deciding whether to accept a risk and what terms to apply.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. <strong>Insurable interest</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To remove from an insurance policy, the insured must stand in some legally recognized relationship to the subject matter of the policy whereby he benefits from its safekeeping or is prejudiced by its loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. <strong>Indemnity</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The idea of indemnity is that the insured should be placed after a loss in, as near as possible, the same position that he enjoyed before the loss – an exact financial compensation. The insured will not profit from a loss. In practice, this is very difficult to achieve. This is because of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Variations in policies;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Sum insured is not being adequate (average applies);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Deductibles imposed on policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4<strong>. Subrogation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If an insured recovers under his policy, then the insurer assumes his legal rights and remedies against third parties. This prevents an insured from making a recovery from both his insurers and a third party and thereby receiving more than indemnity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. <strong>Contribution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An insured cannot make a profit from a loss by recovering from more than one property or pecuniary insurance policy. Contribution only arises when policies cover;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) the same loss or damage by the same insured peril;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) the same subject matter;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) the same interest of the insured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. <strong>Proximate cause</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance policies are designed to pay for losses from specific perils. For a claim to be valid the loss must be directly attributed to one of the insured perils. If caused by an independent, intervening, and uninsured peril, the claim will not be allowable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Doctrine of proximate cause helps to establish whether the loss was caused by a peril insured against or whether the loss was caused by an excluded peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is often difficult to determine the cause of loss. Where there is a chain of events, to entitle the insured to recover, the chain of events leading from the insured peril to the actual loss suffered by the insured must be unbroken.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the case of the Asian tsunami in 2014, an earthquake was found to be the proximate cause of loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In another case, a fire left a brick wall in an unusable state. A few days later a storm caused the wall to collapse which caused damage to the adjacent property. It was held by the court that the active efficient cause of damage was not the fire, but the failure of the owner to demolish the wall or provide adequate support to the wall.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Construction Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the legal viewpoint, insurance allocates the risks to which the construction project is exposed between the parties. From an insurance aspect, risks form the basis of insurability and the premium calculation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance is a risk transfer mechanism in that the insured transfers from a state of uncertainty to a state of certainty at a certain cost of the insurance premium. It is a cost-smoothing mechanism, in which contractors exchange a regular known annual premium for an unknown potential toss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Insurable Risks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurable risk means a risk, which can be covered by insurance. For a risk to be acceptable by an insurer, it has to be a \"pure risk which means it has the downside of the effect only (opportunity for loss only), speculative risks are not covered by traditional insurance. Moreover, it has to be sudden and accidental, with statistics available for insurers to simulate past events and generate a creditable premium.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- An insurable risk must be measurable in quantitative terms and in such a way that the theories of probability and the law of inertia of large numbers may be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- A large number of homogeneous and relatively independent exposure units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Potential losses that are accidental and unintentional.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Losses are determinable and measurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reliable estimates of claim frequency and severity are available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The risk charge or premium is economically feasible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insured must have an insurable interest in the object of the insurance contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, whether insurance can be used as a solution depends on:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The insurability of the risk.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The adequate and tailored policy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The comparison of the insurance premium and the cover of potential risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The trust and confidence of insurers about their solvency and claim service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No other alternative risk transfer solutions are available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A typical construction project will consider insurance on:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Material Damage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Third-Party Liability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Materials in Transit</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Damage to Construction Plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Non-negligent indemnity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Consequential loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance covers not usually included but obtainable:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Employer\'s Liability / Workmen\'s Compensation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Professional indemnity (for Architects, Consulting Engineers, etc.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the risks associated with the construction process are fairly predictable or readily identifiable; others may be unforeseen.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The risks list from the Contractors’ perspective includes;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Inclement weather.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Delays in site availability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Site conditions – surface and &amp; subsurface.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Inadequate detailed drawings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Late material deliveries.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Unanticipated price changes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Subcontractors\' failure to perform.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Unproductive labor and strikes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Design risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction defects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Damages, penalties, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Costs caused by delays in the completion of the works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractors should also consider the obligations to carry insurance and the capacity to transfer risks to subcontractors, insurers, or consultants.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When deciding on risk management strategies, a contractor must consider many aspects, including risk responsibilities, risk patterns, and risk management capabilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The risks can be insurable, such as fire, theft, and other physical risks; some risks can be transferred to subcontractors or suppliers, such as quality of materials, and workmanship; some risks can be shared with clients, such as uninsurable risks and bureaucratic delays.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction risks are complex, hazardous, and difficult to assess, price, and control.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Requires highly trained officers to handle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction projects are too vulnerable to loss especially due to unpredictable weather changes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- They are more risky than property risks (static properties).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Too many insured parties - Owner/principal, contractor, sub-contractors, financiers, suppliers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Liability issues can be complex.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction insurance is a one-off policy, with no renewal applicable like property policy (issued for every year).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>No time to assess risks properly. Usually, due to high competition, policies are transacted with quick negotiations. The consequences can go either way.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurers could recommend appropriate risk management procedures for contractors to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reduce the probability of a risk happening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reduce the size of a claim when it happens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Increase certainty on contractor\'s financial exposure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Advise on Loss Prevention.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'CONSTRUCTION RISKS AND INSURANCE', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'construction-risks-and-insurance', '', '', '2024-06-08 16:55:40', '2024-06-08 11:25:40', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2001', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2011, 1, '2024-06-09 21:02:22', '2024-06-09 15:32:22', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes in Contracts in the construction industry are becoming common today. The construction disputes vary in their nature, size, and complexity. If contract documents are poorly drafted and badly managed, the results will be inevitable additional costs and additional liabilities to the Client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before becoming disputes or recognized as disputes, the parties to the contract generally present their entitlement in the form of a construction claim and establish their disagreement to the issue at the early stage of the dispute. Despite the fact how disputes occur, it is recognized payment issues are the most common area and route cause of construction disputes today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a result of this, drafting a proper contract document becomes a vital aspect in terms of dispute avoidance and management. Particularly, Bills of Quantities which are a part of the Contract document are essential in establishing contractual claims and in the dispute resolution process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contractor’s Approach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Whilst discharging obligations of the Contract, the contractors may undertake a strategy of achieving profit by challenging the errors and omissions of the Bill of Quantities and contract document. At the height of the discrepancies or ambiguities or disputes, more effort was being put into claims, than ensuring production targets were reached.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Engineer’s Approach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where the parties claim their entitlements as per their interpretations of the documents, it is a general understanding that the Engineer shall determine a fair and reasonable manner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contract Documents including the BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contract between the Employer and the Contractor which is laid down either by the issuance of the Letter of Acceptance or signing of the Agreement by the Parties includes many documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per many Standard Bidding Documents, contract documents comprises of the following documents;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contract agreement – if any.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Letter of Acceptance.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Memorandum of understanding – if any.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Form of Bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Contract Data – Part II.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Contract Conditions – Part I.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Drawings.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Bill of Quantities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Any other documents as may expressed in the Letter of Acceptance.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>BOQ has several uses in the construction industry. Primarily, it provides a uniform basis for tendering and pricing for the contractors and during the construction stage as a tool for payments and evaluation. The Engineer uses the quantities given in the BOQ to monitor progress at the site. BOQ is also used as a basis for planning and procurement of materials and supplies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As mentioned in the above, a Contract which is made in writing frequently consists of more than one document. Accordingly, the BOQ must be read in conjunction with all other documents in the Contract and the Contractor shall be deemed to have thoroughly acquainted himself with the detailed descriptions of the Works to be done and how they are to be carried out. The whole of the Works is to be executed to their true intent and meaning and the entire satisfaction of the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of discrepancies or ambiguities that lead to disputes between the parties, the priority of the contract documents will be a very important factor to consider when finding a solution for a contract dispute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per many SBDs, the several documents forming the contract are to be taken as mutually explanatory of one another, but in case of ambiguities or discrepancies for interpretation priority of the contract document shall be in the following sequence;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The contract agreement – if any.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The Letter of Acceptance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Memorandum of understanding – if any.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The Form of Bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. The Contract Data – Part II.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Contract Conditions – Part I.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. The Specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. The Drawings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. The Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. Any other documents as may expressed in the Letter of Acceptance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Root causes for common disputes out of issues relating to BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Incomplete and inaccurate BOQ descriptions – errors, defects, and ommissions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Due to copied BOQ descriptions from past projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Disputes related to the method of measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Dispute due to the inclusion of trade names in the BOQ descriptions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Unrealistic tender pricing – misunderstanding the real scope of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Ambiguities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Discrepancy of documents such as BOQ vs. Specifications, BOQ vs. Drawings, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Avoiding Claims and Disputes arising from BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is necessary to ensure that BOQs are measured by the standard method as applicable and measure items as accurately as possible at the tender stage on the information available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Given the situation that there are uncertainties in respect of the design or specification at the time of tender documents being prepared, it is advisable to use provisional sums or prime costs appropriately and to state the sum as “provisional”.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>These situations can also be avoided to a certain extent by adopting the correct procurement system. Where the Contractor-designed items are the major part of the project, it is appropriate to consider the Design and Build approach. BOQ should be organized accordingly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Further, when tenders are received, the Consultant’s Quantity Surveyor must examine the rate for high rates, low rates, and inconsistencies or anomalies and identify carefully the consequence of each.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The documents forming part of the Contract should be mutually explanatory and complementary. In the event of a discrepancy between the documents, preference should be given to the order of precedent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'MINIMIZING DISPUTES ARISING FROM BILL OF QUANTITIES', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'minimizing-disputes-arising-from-bill-of-quantities', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:02:24', '2024-06-09 15:32:24', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2011', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(2012, 1, '2024-06-09 21:01:24', '2024-06-09 15:31:24', '', 'openart-image_n5V9sFgy_1717947002284_raw', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'openart-image_n5v9sfgy_1717947002284_raw', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:01:24', '2024-06-09 15:31:24', '', 2011, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/openart-image_n5V9sFgy_1717947002284_raw.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2013, 1, '2024-06-09 21:02:22', '2024-06-09 15:32:22', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes in Contracts in the construction industry are becoming common today. The construction disputes vary in their nature, size, and complexity. If contract documents are poorly drafted and badly managed, the results will be inevitable additional costs and additional liabilities to the Client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before becoming disputes or recognized as disputes, the parties to the contract generally present their entitlement in the form of a construction claim and establish their disagreement to the issue at the early stage of the dispute. Despite the fact how disputes occur, it is recognized payment issues are the most common area and route cause of construction disputes today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a result of this, drafting a proper contract document becomes a vital aspect in terms of dispute avoidance and management. Particularly, Bills of Quantities which are a part of the Contract document are essential in establishing contractual claims and in the dispute resolution process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contractor’s Approach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Whilst discharging obligations of the Contract, the contractors may undertake a strategy of achieving profit by challenging the errors and omissions of the Bill of Quantities and contract document. At the height of the discrepancies or ambiguities or disputes, more effort was being put into claims, than ensuring production targets were reached.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Engineer’s Approach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where the parties claim their entitlements as per their interpretations of the documents, it is a general understanding that the Engineer shall determine a fair and reasonable manner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contract Documents including the BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contract between the Employer and the Contractor which is laid down either by the issuance of the Letter of Acceptance or signing of the Agreement by the Parties includes many documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per many Standard Bidding Documents, contract documents comprises of the following documents;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contract agreement – if any.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Letter of Acceptance.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Memorandum of understanding – if any.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Form of Bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Contract Data – Part II.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Contract Conditions – Part I.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Drawings.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Bill of Quantities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Any other documents as may expressed in the Letter of Acceptance.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>BOQ has several uses in the construction industry. Primarily, it provides a uniform basis for tendering and pricing for the contractors and during the construction stage as a tool for payments and evaluation. The Engineer uses the quantities given in the BOQ to monitor progress at the site. BOQ is also used as a basis for planning and procurement of materials and supplies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As mentioned in the above, a Contract which is made in writing frequently consists of more than one document. Accordingly, the BOQ must be read in conjunction with all other documents in the Contract and the Contractor shall be deemed to have thoroughly acquainted himself with the detailed descriptions of the Works to be done and how they are to be carried out. The whole of the Works is to be executed to their true intent and meaning and the entire satisfaction of the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of discrepancies or ambiguities that lead to disputes between the parties, the priority of the contract documents will be a very important factor to consider when finding a solution for a contract dispute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per many SBDs, the several documents forming the contract are to be taken as mutually explanatory of one another, but in case of ambiguities or discrepancies for interpretation priority of the contract document shall be in the following sequence;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The contract agreement – if any.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The Letter of Acceptance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Memorandum of understanding – if any.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The Form of Bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. The Contract Data – Part II.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Contract Conditions – Part I.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. The Specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. The Drawings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. The Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. Any other documents as may expressed in the Letter of Acceptance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Root causes for common disputes out of issues relating to BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Incomplete and inaccurate BOQ descriptions – errors, defects, and ommissions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Due to copied BOQ descriptions from past projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Disputes related to the method of measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Dispute due to the inclusion of trade names in the BOQ descriptions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Unrealistic tender pricing – misunderstanding the real scope of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Ambiguities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Discrepancy of documents such as BOQ vs. Specifications, BOQ vs. Drawings, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Avoiding Claims and Disputes arising from BOQ</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is necessary to ensure that BOQs are measured by the standard method as applicable and measure items as accurately as possible at the tender stage on the information available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Given the situation that there are uncertainties in respect of the design or specification at the time of tender documents being prepared, it is advisable to use provisional sums or prime costs appropriately and to state the sum as “provisional”.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>These situations can also be avoided to a certain extent by adopting the correct procurement system. Where the Contractor-designed items are the major part of the project, it is appropriate to consider the Design and Build approach. BOQ should be organized accordingly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Further, when tenders are received, the Consultant’s Quantity Surveyor must examine the rate for high rates, low rates, and inconsistencies or anomalies and identify carefully the consequence of each.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The documents forming part of the Contract should be mutually explanatory and complementary. In the event of a discrepancy between the documents, preference should be given to the order of precedent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'MINIMIZING DISPUTES ARISING FROM BILL OF QUANTITIES', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2011-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:02:22', '2024-06-09 15:32:22', '', 2011, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2013', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2188, 1, '2024-07-10 21:05:21', '2024-07-10 15:35:21', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The external envelope of a building provides weather protection and security. However, the internal space becomes useless unless it is divided into meaningful compartments or rooms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method of dividing the space is using internal walls. In some offices, this is achieved by the planned positioning of cupboards, pot plants, and movable screens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Internal walls may sometimes carry structural loads or they may be constructed as non-load bearing walls.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Internal non-load bearing walls or partitions are built in bricks or cement blocks. But to reduce cost, provide lightweight, and provide mobility, they may be built using other materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The functions of internal walls are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Partitioning the internal space</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide fire resistance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide insulation, both thermal &amp; sound</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide security</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Support fittings, fixtures, and decorations</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Be static or movable</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Accommodate services</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Brick and block partition walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These walls are usually ½ brick thick or 1 brick thick in some cases.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have to support their self weight, and need not be cavity walls since there is no need for weather resistance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where an opening is required in an internal wall for doors or service hatches, they should be built in as the walling proceeds.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finishes for internal walls depend on the function of the building, the decorative effect required, and the cost.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Common finishes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plaster work provides a smooth dense joint-less surface for painting and decorating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plasterboard sheets 12.7 mm thick called ‘dry lining’ uses 38 x 19 mm battens fixed to the wall vertically at 400mm centers with screws, and the plasterboards are fixed using GI nails. The joints between sheets are reinforced with paper tape, and the joint is filled flush with the surface.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finally, the surface is finished with a 3.5 mm thick skim coat of plaster.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plywood, fiberboard, flat asbestos cement sheets, and thin sheets of plywood or hardboard with laminated faces are also used as finishes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ceramic, glass, or plastic tiles too can be used as internal wall finishes. In addition to the decorative effect, they give water resistance to walls in bathrooms, kitchens, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The brick walls can also be left uncovered. In this case, the joints may be prepared using coloured mortars or special pointing methods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Timber partition walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Timber partitions or Stud partitions consist of a framework supporting ‘dry linings’ material such as plasterboard, plywood, or hardboard.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The framework consists of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Vertical studs spaced at intervals to suit the loads and dimensions of facing boards</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Horizontal sole plate at the bottom</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Horizontal head at the top</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Horizontal noggins fixed between studs to provide lateral support to studs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Facing boards that take the wall finishes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These partition walls have to support their weight and in addition, the impact loads of doors closing/opening, furniture, etc., banging against them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To get an even surface to the wall, the frame members should be of the same thickness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The common sizes are 100 x 50 mm, 100 x 38 mm, 75 x 50 mm, and 75 x 38 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Timber walls are much quicker to build than brick or block walls, and are also light-weight.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Non-Load Bearing Partition Walls', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'non-load-bearing-partition-walls', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:05:22', '2024-07-10 15:35:22', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2188', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2190, 1, '2024-07-10 21:05:21', '2024-07-10 15:35:21', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The external envelope of a building provides weather protection and security. However, the internal space becomes useless unless it is divided into meaningful compartments or rooms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method of dividing the space is using internal walls. In some offices, this is achieved by the planned positioning of cupboards, pot plants, and movable screens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Internal walls may sometimes carry structural loads or they may be constructed as non-load bearing walls.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Internal non-load bearing walls or partitions are built in bricks or cement blocks. But to reduce cost, provide lightweight, and provide mobility, they may be built using other materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The functions of internal walls are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Partitioning the internal space</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide fire resistance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide insulation, both thermal &amp; sound</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide security</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Support fittings, fixtures, and decorations</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Be static or movable</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Accommodate services</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Brick and block partition walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These walls are usually ½ brick thick or 1 brick thick in some cases.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have to support their self weight, and need not be cavity walls since there is no need for weather resistance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where an opening is required in an internal wall for doors or service hatches, they should be built in as the walling proceeds.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finishes for internal walls depend on the function of the building, the decorative effect required, and the cost.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Common finishes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plaster work provides a smooth dense joint-less surface for painting and decorating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plasterboard sheets 12.7 mm thick called ‘dry lining’ uses 38 x 19 mm battens fixed to the wall vertically at 400mm centers with screws, and the plasterboards are fixed using GI nails. The joints between sheets are reinforced with paper tape, and the joint is filled flush with the surface.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finally, the surface is finished with a 3.5 mm thick skim coat of plaster.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Plywood, fiberboard, flat asbestos cement sheets, and thin sheets of plywood or hardboard with laminated faces are also used as finishes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ceramic, glass, or plastic tiles too can be used as internal wall finishes. In addition to the decorative effect, they give water resistance to walls in bathrooms, kitchens, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The brick walls can also be left uncovered. In this case, the joints may be prepared using coloured mortars or special pointing methods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Timber partition walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Timber partitions or Stud partitions consist of a framework supporting ‘dry linings’ material such as plasterboard, plywood, or hardboard.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The framework consists of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Vertical studs spaced at intervals to suit the loads and dimensions of facing boards</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Horizontal sole plate at the bottom</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Horizontal head at the top</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Horizontal noggins fixed between studs to provide lateral support to studs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Facing boards that take the wall finishes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These partition walls have to support their weight and in addition, the impact loads of doors closing/opening, furniture, etc., banging against them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To get an even surface to the wall, the frame members should be of the same thickness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The common sizes are 100 x 50 mm, 100 x 38 mm, 75 x 50 mm, and 75 x 38 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Timber walls are much quicker to build than brick or block walls, and are also light-weight.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Non-Load Bearing Partition Walls', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2188-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:05:21', '2024-07-10 15:35:21', '', 2188, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2190', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2346, 1, '2024-08-19 22:53:28', '2024-08-19 17:23:28', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Sustainability?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainability is the key to a healthy future. It\'s about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. This means finding a balance between social, environmental, and economic demands – the three pillars of sustainability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Social sustainability </strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Social sustainability focuses on the people using the building. Their current and future needs influence the design, which strives to create a highly flexible plan that allows the building to be easily re-purposed as needs change.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Environment sustainability </strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Measures to address environmental sustainability can include increasing a building\'s energy efficiency, finding ways to produce its energy or heat, installing water reduction measures, and reducing waste.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Economic sustainability</strong> </h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainable construction can also save money in both the short and long term. As mentioned, using local materials saves money immediately because there are lower transportation costs. Using materials that are somewhat easy to install, maintain, replace, and repair also helps save money</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sustainability in Construction: Building a Greener Tomorrow</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction plays a crucial role in building a sustainable future. Sustainable construction focuses on optimizing construction activities to minimize harmful impacts on resources, the surrounding environment, and living ecosystems. It\'s about building with the planet in mind, and minimizing the environmental footprint of every project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Why is Sustainability Important in Construction?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction has a direct impact on the environment, with potential negative effects like:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Waste Generation:</strong> Construction projects produce significant amounts of waste materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Emissions:</strong> Vehicles, machinery, and construction processes release harmful emissions into the air.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Noise Pollution:</strong> Construction activities can generate significant noise pollution, disrupting surrounding communities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water and Soil Contamination:</strong> Construction can lead to the release of pollutants and waste into water sources and soil.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Creating a Sustainable Construction Industry:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry can lead the way towards a more sustainable future by adopting these practices:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reusing Existing Buildings:</strong> Maximize the use of existing structures to minimize new construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Minimalist Design:</strong> Design buildings with efficiency in mind, using only the necessary materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Lean Construction:</strong> Implement streamlined processes to minimize waste and maximize efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Energy Efficiency:</strong> Minimize energy consumption during construction and throughout the building\'s lifecycle.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Conservation:</strong> Implement water-saving measures and reduce water usage during construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reduce Pollution:</strong> Minimize pollution by adopting environmentally friendly construction practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Benefits of Sustainable Construction:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainable construction benefits the environment and society as a whole:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Conservation:</strong> Sustainable buildings utilize water-saving systems and landscaping to minimize water consumption.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Conservation:</strong> Sustainable buildings use fewer raw materials, opting for recycled and renewable resources, and maximizing the lifespan of materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Energy Efficiency:</strong> Sustainable buildings feature energy-saving appliances and designs that reduce carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Land Conservation:</strong> Sustainable construction projects are designed to minimize land degradation and deforestation, ensuring healthy ecosystems.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Building a Sustainable Future:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainability is not just a trend, it\'s a necessity. By embracing sustainable practices, the construction industry can create buildings that benefit both present and future generations. By prioritizing sustainability, we can build a future where construction is a force for good, protecting our planet and ensuring a thriving future for all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Sustainability: Building a Better Future in Construction', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2344-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-08-19 22:53:28', '2024-08-19 17:23:28', '', 2344, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2346', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2193, 1, '2024-07-10 21:37:21', '2024-07-10 16:07:21', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is a stone broken into small pieces and glued together with paste that is Portland cement, sand, and water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete continues to get stronger when it gets older. Most of the hydration and strength gain take place within the first 28 days. However, hydration and gaining strength continues at a slower rate for many years.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The latest technologies use additives that replace cement with cementitious material such as fly ash, ground blast furnace slag, and silica fume. By using these industrial by-products, the amount of cement is reduced, thereby creating a more environmentally friendly mix. These products yield concrete that is of higher structural strength but denser and less porous, which produces a longer service life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The versatility of concrete means its adaptability to a wide variety of purposes. It is about concrete that provides itself with varied uses and how those many uses reflect concrete’s character.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What are the characteristics, both inherent to the material and imparted by decades of development, which led to a wide variety of uses over the years?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The primary thing is its plasticity and the variability of its constituents. It can be produced in its final shape on-site or at the factory. No other material can offer this flexibility.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>That opens up many more options for construction, including the method of placing, size of the possible element, flexibility of form, and adjustability to the construction programme.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it does leave concrete open to blame for inconsistency and difficulties in quality control.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is strong and durable, resistant to deterioration and damage. It shields the temperature, and it can be colored and placed to do this in a way that works with passive solar energy to heat or cool spaces.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It buffers sound, providing relief in a crowded, noisy world.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is versatile, allowing large choices of shapes, different types of textures, and many structural approaches to create and feel appropriate to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is also versatile in the flexibility of component materials, a quality which both extends the range of performance properties such as insulation, permeability, and strength. Also, it allows variation in the resources used to produce it.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete can play a vital role in the way we conserve and protect natural resources in the structures we create with it and the processes by which we produce it.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is also the material of choice for all structures in contact with water, such as dams, waterfalls, water distribution facilities, treatment facilities, force mains, and piping where the use of concrete is the primary material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Versatility of Concrete', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'the-versatility-of-concrete', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:37:23', '2024-07-10 16:07:23', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2193', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(2194, 1, '2024-07-10 21:36:41', '2024-07-10 16:06:41', '', '', 'Photo by <a href=\"https://unsplash.com/@uvesanchez?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash\">uve sanchez</a> on <a href=\"https://unsplash.com/photos/grayscale-photography-of-concrete-blocks-9DRX_cW48RQ?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash\">Unsplash</a>\n  ', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'uve-sanchez-9drx_cw48rq-unsplash', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:36:57', '2024-07-10 16:06:57', '', 2193, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/uve-sanchez-9DRX_cW48RQ-unsplash.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2195, 1, '2024-07-10 21:37:21', '2024-07-10 16:07:21', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is a stone broken into small pieces and glued together with paste that is Portland cement, sand, and water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete continues to get stronger when it gets older. Most of the hydration and strength gain take place within the first 28 days. However, hydration and gaining strength continues at a slower rate for many years.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The latest technologies use additives that replace cement with cementitious material such as fly ash, ground blast furnace slag, and silica fume. By using these industrial by-products, the amount of cement is reduced, thereby creating a more environmentally friendly mix. These products yield concrete that is of higher structural strength but denser and less porous, which produces a longer service life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The versatility of concrete means its adaptability to a wide variety of purposes. It is about concrete that provides itself with varied uses and how those many uses reflect concrete’s character.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What are the characteristics, both inherent to the material and imparted by decades of development, which led to a wide variety of uses over the years?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The primary thing is its plasticity and the variability of its constituents. It can be produced in its final shape on-site or at the factory. No other material can offer this flexibility.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>That opens up many more options for construction, including the method of placing, size of the possible element, flexibility of form, and adjustability to the construction programme.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it does leave concrete open to blame for inconsistency and difficulties in quality control.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is strong and durable, resistant to deterioration and damage. It shields the temperature, and it can be colored and placed to do this in a way that works with passive solar energy to heat or cool spaces.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It buffers sound, providing relief in a crowded, noisy world.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is versatile, allowing large choices of shapes, different types of textures, and many structural approaches to create and feel appropriate to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is also versatile in the flexibility of component materials, a quality which both extends the range of performance properties such as insulation, permeability, and strength. Also, it allows variation in the resources used to produce it.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete can play a vital role in the way we conserve and protect natural resources in the structures we create with it and the processes by which we produce it.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concrete is also the material of choice for all structures in contact with water, such as dams, waterfalls, water distribution facilities, treatment facilities, force mains, and piping where the use of concrete is the primary material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Versatility of Concrete', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2193-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:37:21', '2024-07-10 16:07:21', '', 2193, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2195', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2197, 1, '2024-07-10 21:38:35', '2024-07-10 16:08:35', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2197', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:38:35', '2024-07-10 16:08:35', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2197/', 95, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2199, 1, '2024-07-10 21:53:06', '2024-07-10 16:23:06', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Time, Cost, and Quality are triple constraints or three primary objectives that a project manager must balance in carrying out a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What is quality? There are many definitions. The Institute of Quality Assurance (2002) says this about quality:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In its broadest sense, quality is a degree of excellence. It is the extent to which something is fit for its intended purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the narrow sense, product or service quality is defined as conformance with requirements, freedom from defects, or simply a degree of customer satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), in its much-lauded <em>Quality in the Constructed Project: A Guide for Owners, Designers and Constructors </em>(American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000) defines quality as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>‘the fulfillment of project responsibilities in the delivery of products and services in a manner that meets or exceeds the stated requirements and expectations of the owner, design professional, and constructor’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>OR “contractor’s task in managing quality is to assure compliance with the technical requirements of the project, as described in the contract documents, through a series of steps that plan, execute, monitor and control the physical aspects of the work”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Quality Assurance and Quality Control</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although these terms are sometimes used synonymously, it is helpful to distinguish between them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality assurance may be defined as ‘planned and systematic actions focused on providing the members of the project team with confidence that components are designed and constructed in accordance with applicable standards and as specified by contract.’</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality control, on the other hand, is ‘the examination of services provided and completed work, together with management and documentation practices, that are geared to ensure that project services and work meet contractual requirements’ (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Thus a contractor’s <em>quality assurance </em>programme includes all activities that ‘assure quality’ includes the selection of subcontractors, training of the workforce, use of proper methodology, and the various testing activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Quality control </em>is one part of quality assurance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One means of attempting to reduce construction quality problems and assuring quality performance by construction contractors is certification by the International Organization for Standardization. That organization uses the designation ISO to refer to all of its standards, the term is derived from the Greek <em>isos</em>, meaning <em>equal</em>; thus its standards apply equally or universally for a given situation or condition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ISO standards related to quality are known as the ISO 9000 series of standards. The ISO 9001 standards are for organizations that design, produce, install, and service products, while the ISO 9002 standards apply to organizations that only produce, install, and service products. The standards apply to all kinds of organizations. In the area of construction, ISO 9002 certification is sought by contractors who do not perform design services, while design-build contractors fall under the ISO 9001 guidelines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many owner organizations require their contractors to be ISO-certified or to meet similar standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following elements are appropriate for the quality assurance/quality control programme:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"lower-alpha\"} -->\n<ol style=\"list-style-type:lower-alpha\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Recruiting and assigning a skilled workforce<ol><li>Quality control organization</li></ol><ol><li>Project progress schedule</li></ol><ol><li>Submittal schedule</li></ol><ol><li>Inspections</li></ol><ol><li>Quality control testing plan</li></ol><ol><li>Documentation of quality control activities</li></ol><!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Procedures for corrective action when quality control and/or acceptance criteria are not met.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During the project operation phase, the contractor is usually required by the contract to furnish and abide by a quality plan.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>COST OF QUALITY</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality costs are broken down into two categories: the cost of prevention and appraisal and the cost of failure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The breakdown of these costs is shown below:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality costs = Control costs + Failure costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Control costs = Prevention costs + Appraisal costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Failure costs = Internal failure costs + External failure costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In terms of construction, the prevention costs are the costs resulting from quality activities employed to avoid deviations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The appraisal costs consist of costs incurred from quality activities employed to determine whether a product, process, or service conforms to established requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The failure costs are the costs resulting from not meeting the requirements. Internal failure costs are the costs incurred on the project site due to scrap, rework, failure analysis, re-inspection, supplier error, or price reduction due to non-conformance. External failure costs are costs that are incurred once the project is in the hands of the client. These include costs for adjustments of complaints, repairs, handling, and replacement of rejected material, workmanship, correction of errors, and litigation costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'quality-management-in-construction', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:53:08', '2024-07-10 16:23:08', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2199', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1961, 1, '2023-05-27 05:11:46', '2023-05-26 23:41:46', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is an effective method of preventing, managing, and resolving conflicts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, a mediation process requires more than the appointment of a high-profile individual to act as a third party. To be effective, opponents need to be convinced of the merits of mediation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ad-hoc and poorly coordinated mediation efforts, even when launched with the best of intentions, do not get the goal of achieving durable results.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation in general</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What is mediation? Mediation is a process of communication in which persons in a dispute with the assistance of a mediator try to reach an agreement, understanding, or reconciliation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Why did these parties agree to mediation?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Choosing mediation is a correct decision made by the conflicting parties instead of a trial for the following reasons:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation is confidential.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation improves communication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation avoids litigation and the expense of going to trial.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation allows the parties to design their own resolution to their dispute.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is a win-win situation for all the parties involved.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation allows the parties to find closure to the dispute.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Both sides reach a private agreement. Both sides come to an understanding.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a voluntary process that requires the consent of the conflicting parties to be effective. Without consent, it is unlikely that parties will negotiate in good faith or be committed to the mediation process.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A range of issues can affect whether conflict parties consent to mediation. The integrity of the mediation process, security, and confidentiality are important elements in cultivating the consent of the parties, along with the acceptability of the mediator and the mediating entity.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Impartiality is the basis of mediation. If a mediation process is alleged to be biased, it can weaken meaningful progress to resolve the conflict. A mediator should be able to run a balanced process. It treats all parties of the conflict fairly, and should not have a material interest in the outcome. This also requires that the mediator is able to talk with all actors relevant to resolving the conflict.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation process</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a process whereby a third party assists two or more parties, with their consent, to prevent, manage or resolve a conflict by helping them to develop mutually acceptable agreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The premise of mediation is that in the right environment, conflicting parties can improve their relationships and move toward cooperation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a voluntary Endeavour in which the consent of parties should be given. It is critical for a viable process and a durable outcome.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The role of the mediator is influenced by the nature of the relationship with the parties. Mediators usually have significant room to make procedural proposals and manage the process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An effective mediation process responds to the specificity of the conflict. It takes into account the causes and dynamics of the conflict, the positions, interests, and coherence of the parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a specialized activity. Through a professional approach, mediators provide a buffer for the conflict parties and instill confidence in the process and a belief that a peaceful resolution is achievable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A good mediator promotes exchange through listening and dialogue and extends a spirit of collaboration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation practices</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While all disputes and conflicts are unique and require specific approaches, there are good practices that should be informed to all mediators.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper processes such as :</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediators Opening statement - verbal opening of the mediator;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Parties opening statements – each;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Joint discussions;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A group or private meeting between mediator and one party;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closure after joint sessions and the mediation process comes to a closure in one or two ways;<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Without agreement/settlement;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>With agreement and settlement partially or fully.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Role of the Mediator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mediator’s role is :</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Problem-solving, ensures that negotiating parties have sufficient knowledge, information, and skills to negotiate with confidence and broadens the process to include relevant stakeholders from different segments of society.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediators are most successful in assisting negotiating parties to come to agreements when they are well informed.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should be patient, balanced in their approach, and discreet.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective mediation requires a supportive external environment.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A mediator needs to withstand external pressures and avoid unrealistic deadlines and also develop the support of the parties.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He should set the tone for the mediation.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Mediation – in Construction Contracts', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'mediation-in-construction-contracts', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:11:53', '2023-05-26 23:41:53', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1961', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1962, 1, '2023-05-27 05:11:18', '2023-05-26 23:41:18', '', 'christmas-time-christmas-screws-7630754', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'christmas-time-christmas-screws-7630754', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:11:18', '2023-05-26 23:41:18', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/christmas-time-christmas-screws-7630754.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1963, 1, '2023-05-27 05:11:46', '2023-05-26 23:41:46', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is an effective method of preventing, managing, and resolving conflicts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, a mediation process requires more than the appointment of a high-profile individual to act as a third party. To be effective, opponents need to be convinced of the merits of mediation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ad-hoc and poorly coordinated mediation efforts, even when launched with the best of intentions, do not get the goal of achieving durable results.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation in general</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What is mediation? Mediation is a process of communication in which persons in a dispute with the assistance of a mediator try to reach an agreement, understanding, or reconciliation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Why did these parties agree to mediation?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Choosing mediation is a correct decision made by the conflicting parties instead of a trial for the following reasons:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation is confidential.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation improves communication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation avoids litigation and the expense of going to trial.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation allows the parties to design their own resolution to their dispute.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is a win-win situation for all the parties involved.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation allows the parties to find closure to the dispute.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Both sides reach a private agreement. Both sides come to an understanding.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a voluntary process that requires the consent of the conflicting parties to be effective. Without consent, it is unlikely that parties will negotiate in good faith or be committed to the mediation process.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A range of issues can affect whether conflict parties consent to mediation. The integrity of the mediation process, security, and confidentiality are important elements in cultivating the consent of the parties, along with the acceptability of the mediator and the mediating entity.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Impartiality is the basis of mediation. If a mediation process is alleged to be biased, it can weaken meaningful progress to resolve the conflict. A mediator should be able to run a balanced process. It treats all parties of the conflict fairly, and should not have a material interest in the outcome. This also requires that the mediator is able to talk with all actors relevant to resolving the conflict.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation process</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a process whereby a third party assists two or more parties, with their consent, to prevent, manage or resolve a conflict by helping them to develop mutually acceptable agreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The premise of mediation is that in the right environment, conflicting parties can improve their relationships and move toward cooperation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a voluntary Endeavour in which the consent of parties should be given. It is critical for a viable process and a durable outcome.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The role of the mediator is influenced by the nature of the relationship with the parties. Mediators usually have significant room to make procedural proposals and manage the process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An effective mediation process responds to the specificity of the conflict. It takes into account the causes and dynamics of the conflict, the positions, interests, and coherence of the parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mediation is a specialized activity. Through a professional approach, mediators provide a buffer for the conflict parties and instill confidence in the process and a belief that a peaceful resolution is achievable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A good mediator promotes exchange through listening and dialogue and extends a spirit of collaboration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mediation practices</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While all disputes and conflicts are unique and require specific approaches, there are good practices that should be informed to all mediators.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper processes such as :</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediators Opening statement - verbal opening of the mediator;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Parties opening statements – each;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Joint discussions;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A group or private meeting between mediator and one party;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closure after joint sessions and the mediation process comes to a closure in one or two ways;<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Without agreement/settlement;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>With agreement and settlement partially or fully.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Role of the Mediator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mediator’s role is :</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Problem-solving, ensures that negotiating parties have sufficient knowledge, information, and skills to negotiate with confidence and broadens the process to include relevant stakeholders from different segments of society.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediators are most successful in assisting negotiating parties to come to agreements when they are well informed.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should be patient, balanced in their approach, and discreet.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective mediation requires a supportive external environment.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A mediator needs to withstand external pressures and avoid unrealistic deadlines and also develop the support of the parties.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He should set the tone for the mediation.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Mediation – in Construction Contracts', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1961-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:11:46', '2023-05-26 23:41:46', '', 1961, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1963', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1977, 1, '2023-07-09 22:22:25', '2023-07-09 16:52:25', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purchase of equipment represents a capital investment by the construction contractor. The contractor has to recover enough money to pay the ownership cost and operating costs of the equipment during its useful life. Together, he must make a profit on the investment. Therefore, any estimate must include the cost of equipment used on the particular project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction equipment could be purchased or rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision between purchase and rental usually depends on the amount of time the equipment is used in the contractor’s operations. If extensive use of the equipment is required, the equipment is normally purchased. If the equipment is to be used for a limited amount of time, it is usually rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contractor does not necessarily have to own any construction equipment to carry on business.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be distinct advantages to renting equipment, including:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No need to maintain a large inventory of specialized equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Continuous access to the latest and most efficient items of available equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No need for equipment warehouse and storage facilities during no work periods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Lesser need to employ maintenance staff and operate facilities for their use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Equipment cost accounting is simpler when equipment is rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractors may purchase equipment when factors about ownership and economics make this alternative more favorable than renting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the construction operations of a contractor need the steady use of certain equipment, owing such equipment may be financially better.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be a marketing advantage if the contractor owns their equipment. It shows that they are more financially stable than others who do not own their equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some clients request contractors who bid on their projects to list on the bid the company-owned equipment they propose to use in the work. This information is used in the client’s assessment of the bidder.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the advantage of purchasing equipment is that it allows a contractor to have absolute control over the use and disposition of equipment. The contractor can use the equipment in any manner that fits the required job.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Decisions on how to do maintenance and servicing can be easily made, thus ensuring the desired operational performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Construction machinery/equipment - Renting vs. Purchasing equipment', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'construction-machinery-equipment-renting-vs-purchasing-equipment', '', '', '2023-07-09 22:22:26', '2023-07-09 16:52:26', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1977', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1979, 1, '2023-07-09 22:22:25', '2023-07-09 16:52:25', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purchase of equipment represents a capital investment by the construction contractor. The contractor has to recover enough money to pay the ownership cost and operating costs of the equipment during its useful life. Together, he must make a profit on the investment. Therefore, any estimate must include the cost of equipment used on the particular project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction equipment could be purchased or rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision between purchase and rental usually depends on the amount of time the equipment is used in the contractor’s operations. If extensive use of the equipment is required, the equipment is normally purchased. If the equipment is to be used for a limited amount of time, it is usually rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contractor does not necessarily have to own any construction equipment to carry on business.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be distinct advantages to renting equipment, including:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No need to maintain a large inventory of specialized equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Continuous access to the latest and most efficient items of available equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No need for equipment warehouse and storage facilities during no work periods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Lesser need to employ maintenance staff and operate facilities for their use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Equipment cost accounting is simpler when equipment is rented.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractors may purchase equipment when factors about ownership and economics make this alternative more favorable than renting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the construction operations of a contractor need the steady use of certain equipment, owing such equipment may be financially better.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be a marketing advantage if the contractor owns their equipment. It shows that they are more financially stable than others who do not own their equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some clients request contractors who bid on their projects to list on the bid the company-owned equipment they propose to use in the work. This information is used in the client’s assessment of the bidder.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the advantage of purchasing equipment is that it allows a contractor to have absolute control over the use and disposition of equipment. The contractor can use the equipment in any manner that fits the required job.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Decisions on how to do maintenance and servicing can be easily made, thus ensuring the desired operational performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Construction machinery/equipment - Renting vs. Purchasing equipment', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1977-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-07-09 22:22:25', '2023-07-09 16:52:25', '', 1977, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1979', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1981, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2023-07-09 16:53:27', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1981', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1981/', 68, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1982, 1, '2023-07-09 22:35:24', '2023-07-09 17:05:24', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The essential of a description in a bill of quantities is that it should satisfy the requirements laid down in the Standard Method of Measurement - SMM. Technically, if any description fails to do, it can be considered incorrect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The various clauses in the SMM indicate the essentials of the description. But more information should be given where necessary to define the precise nature and extent of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SMM specifies that certain items are “deemed to be included”. Therefore, it is not necessary to refer to these items in any description.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The practical application of the SMM must be combined with a detailed knowledge of construction technology to formulate clear and brief descriptions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The technique of writing descriptions may be acquired by application of the following rules;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. List the essentials laid down in the relevant SMM clause.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Use SMM phraseology.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Selct necessary information from drawings and specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Re-arrange the sequence, if necessary, to provide a clear and concise description.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>Level</td><td>Content</td><td>Example</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Main section heading (normally work section heading)</td><td>In-situ concrete</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Subsidiary division within the main heading identifying the work</td><td>Beds</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Details of materials and mix</td><td>1:3:6 (40 mm) or 11.50 <br>N/mm<sup>2</sup></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Size range where applicable</td><td>thickness ≤150 mm</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Other variables where appropriate</td><td>poured on or against <br>un-blinded hardcore</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->', 'Writing Descriptions of work items in the Bill of Quantity', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'writing-descriptions-of-work-items-in-the-bill-of-quantity', '', '', '2023-07-09 22:35:25', '2023-07-09 17:05:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1982', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1983, 1, '2023-07-09 22:35:07', '2023-07-09 17:05:07', '', 'document-agreement-documents-428338', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'document-agreement-documents-428338', '', '', '2023-07-09 22:35:07', '2023-07-09 17:05:07', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/document-agreement-documents-428338.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1984, 1, '2023-07-09 22:35:24', '2023-07-09 17:05:24', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The essential of a description in a bill of quantities is that it should satisfy the requirements laid down in the Standard Method of Measurement - SMM. Technically, if any description fails to do, it can be considered incorrect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The various clauses in the SMM indicate the essentials of the description. But more information should be given where necessary to define the precise nature and extent of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SMM specifies that certain items are “deemed to be included”. Therefore, it is not necessary to refer to these items in any description.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The practical application of the SMM must be combined with a detailed knowledge of construction technology to formulate clear and brief descriptions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The technique of writing descriptions may be acquired by application of the following rules;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. List the essentials laid down in the relevant SMM clause.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Use SMM phraseology.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Selct necessary information from drawings and specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Re-arrange the sequence, if necessary, to provide a clear and concise description.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>Level</td><td>Content</td><td>Example</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Main section heading (normally work section heading)</td><td>In-situ concrete</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Subsidiary division within the main heading identifying the work</td><td>Beds</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Details of materials and mix</td><td>1:3:6 (40 mm) or 11.50 <br>N/mm<sup>2</sup></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Size range where applicable</td><td>thickness ≤150 mm</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Other variables where appropriate</td><td>poured on or against <br>un-blinded hardcore</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->', 'Writing Descriptions of work items in the Bill of Quantity', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1982-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-07-09 22:35:24', '2023-07-09 17:05:24', '', 1982, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1984', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2002, 1, '2024-06-08 16:35:15', '2024-06-08 11:05:15', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Hazards &amp; Risks in Construction Projects</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Hazard - </strong>A situation or event whose realization has the potential for damage to human life, society, the economy, or the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Risk - </strong>Risk is the uncertainty of loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Risk = Hazard x Probability of Occurrence</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The hazard is measured in terms of severity. The probability of occurrence of a catastrophic hazard is extremely low; therefore, the risk may still be acceptable. If the probability of a marginal hazard is extremely high, the risk may not be acceptable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Uncertainty of loss covers a range of losses from life to property and from liability to statutory compensations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This uncertainty has two distinct features.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The uncertainty of when it will occur.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The uncertainty of how severe the loss will be.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Insurance - </strong>Insurance is concerned with financial compensation in the event of a loss. Hence, the risk may be further defined as the possibility of a financial loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance is primarily concerned with <strong>pure risks</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pure risk</strong> is a risk in which there is only a possibility of loss or no loss and there is no possibility of gain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Pure risk refers to risks beyond human control that result in a loss or no loss with no possibility of financial gain.&nbsp;Natural disasters such as f</em><em>ires, and floods, are categorized as pure risk. Also, some unforeseen incidents, such as acts of terrorism or untimely deaths may be identified as pure risks.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Speculative risk</strong> differs from pure risk because there is the possibility of profit or loss. This characterizes most financial investments. Most speculative risks are uninsurable because they are undertaken willingly in the hope of profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pure risk</strong> is insurable, because the law of large numbers can be applied to forecast future losses, and, therefore, insurance companies can calculate what premium to charge based on expected losses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The law of large numbers, in probability and statistics, states that as a sample size grows, its mean gets closer to the average of the whole population. This is due to the sample being more representative of the population as the sample becomes larger.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, Speculative Risks have more varied conditions that make estimating future losses difficult or impossible. Also, speculative risk will generally involve a greater frequency of loss than a pure risk. For instance, people do many things to protect their lives or their property, but people willingly engage in speculative risks, such as investing in the stock market, to make a profit; otherwise, a person can avoid most speculative risks simply by avoiding the activity that gives rise to it.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Perils - </strong>Risk is sometimes used to mean the Peril insured against and more often to mean the person or property protected and should be considered in the relevant context to avoid confusion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Risk is the chance of loss, and peril is the direct cause of the loss. If a house burns down, then fire is the peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The terms Peril and Hazard are sometimes used interchangeably with each other and with Risk. However, it is important to note the different meanings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Risk transfer through Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>People face risks in their daily lives. If unprotected, damage caused by the risks could sometimes cause harm and losses that might affect lives, occupations, businesses, and assets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance companies are prepared to provide such protection by taking over many of the critical risks people face at affordable costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mechanism behind the insurance concept is;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Risk transfer from one party to another at an affordable cost,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Probability of occurrence of a loss,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Operation of a common pool (fund) to share the losses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Payment of an equitable contribution to the pool.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the point of view of the public, insurance is an economic risk transfer mechanism.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insurance policy is a Contract of insurance between a party called \"insured or assured” and a party who takes over the risk called “Insurer” for a financial consideration called \"Premium\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insurer does not guarantee that the event insured will not happen. He operates on the probability of transforming the risks to a loss on a \"may or may not occur basis\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will also not guarantee that a loss suffered by the insured will be fully paid back. This is because of imitations in the insurance policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Factors that cause losses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Perils and hazards are the two factors that cause losses. Examples of perils are fire, lightning, cyclones, floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, burglary, thefts, terrorist activity, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hazard is a condition that may create or increase the chances of a loss arising from a Peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Physical Hazard</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A hazard is anything that either causes or increases the likelihood of a loss. For instance, gas furnaces are a hazard for carbon monoxide poisoning. A physical hazard is a physical condition that increases the possibility of a loss. Thus, smoking is a physical hazard that increases the likelihood of a house fire and illness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Moral hazard</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Moral hazards arise from human involvement in a risk. The Client may be a cunning and dishonest person and may intentionally cause loss (often fire) or enhance a loss (after initial damage) and try to claim against the insurer. This hazard is not obvious at the inception of a claim but may emerge during the period of insurance or at the time of a claim. Moral hazards are losses that result from dishonesty. Thus, insurance companies suffer losses because of fraudulent or inflated claims.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Common features of insurable Risks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. It is concerned with pure risk only. Risks should not involve any prospect of gain or profit. Thus losses incurred in trading are not insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The event causing loss must have some sort of uncertainty. The uncertainty may be either in the fact that the happening of the event depends on accidental (fortuitous) causes, which means it may or may not happen at all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. A person can only insure something if he is likely to suffer financially if anything happens to it. The insured must have an insurable interest in what he intends to insure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Anything that is against Public policy (what society considers the right and normal thing to do) is not insurable. For example, spot fines imposed by the Police for traffic offenses are not insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Losses of a high or inevitable catastrophic nature caused by war may not be insurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Certain physical occurrences like climatic or tidal conditions, cyclones, floods, earthquakes, etc., may also not be insurable in certain geographic locations due to inevitable nature or high frequency of occurrence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. The premium should be reasonable compared to the risk being insured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Principles of Construction Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. <strong>Utmost good faith</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As one party to a proposed insurance (the insurer) contract relies upon the other party (the insured) for information about the risk, the rule of utmost good faith applies. This is the duty of the proposer to reveal all material facts about the proposed risk. A material fact would influence the mind of a prudent underwriter in deciding whether to accept a risk and what terms to apply.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. <strong>Insurable interest</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To remove from an insurance policy, the insured must stand in some legally recognized relationship to the subject matter of the policy whereby he benefits from its safekeeping or is prejudiced by its loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. <strong>Indemnity</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The idea of indemnity is that the insured should be placed after a loss in, as near as possible, the same position that he enjoyed before the loss – an exact financial compensation. The insured will not profit from a loss. In practice, this is very difficult to achieve. This is because of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Variations in policies;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Sum insured is not being adequate (average applies);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Deductibles imposed on policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4<strong>. Subrogation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If an insured recovers under his policy, then the insurer assumes his legal rights and remedies against third parties. This prevents an insured from making a recovery from both his insurers and a third party and thereby receiving more than indemnity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. <strong>Contribution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An insured cannot make a profit from a loss by recovering from more than one property or pecuniary insurance policy. Contribution only arises when policies cover;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) the same loss or damage by the same insured peril;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) the same subject matter;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) the same interest of the insured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. <strong>Proximate cause</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance policies are designed to pay for losses from specific perils. For a claim to be valid the loss must be directly attributed to one of the insured perils. If caused by an independent, intervening, and uninsured peril, the claim will not be allowable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Doctrine of proximate cause helps to establish whether the loss was caused by a peril insured against or whether the loss was caused by an excluded peril.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is often difficult to determine the cause of loss. Where there is a chain of events, to entitle the insured to recover, the chain of events leading from the insured peril to the actual loss suffered by the insured must be unbroken.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the case of the Asian tsunami in 2014, an earthquake was found to be the proximate cause of loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In another case, a fire left a brick wall in an unusable state. A few days later a storm caused the wall to collapse which caused damage to the adjacent property. It was held by the court that the active efficient cause of damage was not the fire, but the failure of the owner to demolish the wall or provide adequate support to the wall.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Construction Insurance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the legal viewpoint, insurance allocates the risks to which the construction project is exposed between the parties. From an insurance aspect, risks form the basis of insurability and the premium calculation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance is a risk transfer mechanism in that the insured transfers from a state of uncertainty to a state of certainty at a certain cost of the insurance premium. It is a cost-smoothing mechanism, in which contractors exchange a regular known annual premium for an unknown potential toss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Insurable Risks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurable risk means a risk, which can be covered by insurance. For a risk to be acceptable by an insurer, it has to be a \"pure risk which means it has the downside of the effect only (opportunity for loss only), speculative risks are not covered by traditional insurance. Moreover, it has to be sudden and accidental, with statistics available for insurers to simulate past events and generate a creditable premium.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- An insurable risk must be measurable in quantitative terms and in such a way that the theories of probability and the law of inertia of large numbers may be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- A large number of homogeneous and relatively independent exposure units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Potential losses that are accidental and unintentional.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Losses are determinable and measurable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reliable estimates of claim frequency and severity are available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The risk charge or premium is economically feasible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The insured must have an insurable interest in the object of the insurance contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, whether insurance can be used as a solution depends on:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The insurability of the risk.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The adequate and tailored policy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The comparison of the insurance premium and the cover of potential risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The trust and confidence of insurers about their solvency and claim service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- No other alternative risk transfer solutions are available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A typical construction project will consider insurance on:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Material Damage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Third-Party Liability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Materials in Transit</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Damage to Construction Plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Non-negligent indemnity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Consequential loss.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance covers not usually included but obtainable:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Employer\'s Liability / Workmen\'s Compensation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Professional indemnity (for Architects, Consulting Engineers, etc.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the risks associated with the construction process are fairly predictable or readily identifiable; others may be unforeseen.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The risks list from the Contractors’ perspective includes;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Inclement weather.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Delays in site availability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Site conditions – surface and &amp; subsurface.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Inadequate detailed drawings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Late material deliveries.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Unanticipated price changes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Subcontractors\' failure to perform.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Unproductive labor and strikes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Design risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction defects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Damages, penalties, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Costs caused by delays in the completion of the works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractors should also consider the obligations to carry insurance and the capacity to transfer risks to subcontractors, insurers, or consultants.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When deciding on risk management strategies, a contractor must consider many aspects, including risk responsibilities, risk patterns, and risk management capabilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The risks can be insurable, such as fire, theft, and other physical risks; some risks can be transferred to subcontractors or suppliers, such as quality of materials, and workmanship; some risks can be shared with clients, such as uninsurable risks and bureaucratic delays.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction risks are complex, hazardous, and difficult to assess, price, and control.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Requires highly trained officers to handle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction projects are too vulnerable to loss especially due to unpredictable weather changes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- They are more risky than property risks (static properties).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Too many insured parties - Owner/principal, contractor, sub-contractors, financiers, suppliers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Liability issues can be complex.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Construction insurance is a one-off policy, with no renewal applicable like property policy (issued for every year).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>No time to assess risks properly. Usually, due to high competition, policies are transacted with quick negotiations. The consequences can go either way.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurers could recommend appropriate risk management procedures for contractors to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reduce the probability of a risk happening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Reduce the size of a claim when it happens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Increase certainty on contractor\'s financial exposure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Advise on Loss Prevention.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'CONSTRUCTION RISKS AND INSURANCE', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2001-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-08 16:35:15', '2024-06-08 11:05:15', '', 2001, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2002', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1965, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1965', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1965/', 2, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2344, 1, '2024-08-19 22:53:28', '2024-08-19 17:23:28', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Sustainability?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainability is the key to a healthy future. It\'s about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. This means finding a balance between social, environmental, and economic demands – the three pillars of sustainability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2347,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2347\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Social sustainability </strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Social sustainability focuses on the people using the building. Their current and future needs influence the design, which strives to create a highly flexible plan that allows the building to be easily re-purposed as needs change.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Environment sustainability </strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Measures to address environmental sustainability can include increasing a building\'s energy efficiency, finding ways to produce its energy or heat, installing water reduction measures, and reducing waste.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Economic sustainability</strong> </h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainable construction can also save money in both the short and long term. As mentioned, using local materials saves money immediately because there are lower transportation costs. Using materials that are somewhat easy to install, maintain, replace, and repair also helps save money</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sustainability in Construction: Building a Greener Tomorrow</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction plays a crucial role in building a sustainable future. Sustainable construction focuses on optimizing construction activities to minimize harmful impacts on resources, the surrounding environment, and living ecosystems. It\'s about building with the planet in mind, and minimizing the environmental footprint of every project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Why is Sustainability Important in Construction?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction has a direct impact on the environment, with potential negative effects like:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Waste Generation:</strong> Construction projects produce significant amounts of waste materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Emissions:</strong> Vehicles, machinery, and construction processes release harmful emissions into the air.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Noise Pollution:</strong> Construction activities can generate significant noise pollution, disrupting surrounding communities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water and Soil Contamination:</strong> Construction can lead to the release of pollutants and waste into water sources and soil.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Creating a Sustainable Construction Industry:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry can lead the way towards a more sustainable future by adopting these practices:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reusing Existing Buildings:</strong> Maximize the use of existing structures to minimize new construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Minimalist Design:</strong> Design buildings with efficiency in mind, using only the necessary materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Lean Construction:</strong> Implement streamlined processes to minimize waste and maximize efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Energy Efficiency:</strong> Minimize energy consumption during construction and throughout the building\'s lifecycle.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Conservation:</strong> Implement water-saving measures and reduce water usage during construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reduce Pollution:</strong> Minimize pollution by adopting environmentally friendly construction practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Benefits of Sustainable Construction:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainable construction benefits the environment and society as a whole:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Conservation:</strong> Sustainable buildings utilize water-saving systems and landscaping to minimize water consumption.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Conservation:</strong> Sustainable buildings use fewer raw materials, opting for recycled and renewable resources, and maximizing the lifespan of materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Energy Efficiency:</strong> Sustainable buildings feature energy-saving appliances and designs that reduce carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Land Conservation:</strong> Sustainable construction projects are designed to minimize land degradation and deforestation, ensuring healthy ecosystems.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2349,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2349\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Building a Sustainable Future:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sustainability is not just a trend, it\'s a necessity. By embracing sustainable practices, the construction industry can create buildings that benefit both present and future generations. By prioritizing sustainability, we can build a future where construction is a force for good, protecting our planet and ensuring a thriving future for all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Useful links</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Organizations &amp; Initiatives:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design):</strong> <a href=\"https://www.usgbc.org/\">https://www.usgbc.org/</a> - A globally recognized green building rating system.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>World Green Building Council (WGBC):</strong> <a href=\"https://www.worldgbc.org/\">https://www.worldgbc.org/</a> - A global network promoting sustainable buildings and cities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Green Building Council (GBC):</strong> <a href=\"https://www.gbci.org/\">https://www.gbci.org/</a> - A non-profit organization offering green building certification programs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Living Building Challenge:</strong> <a href=\"https://living-future.org/\">https://living-future.org/</a> - A stringent standard for regenerative building design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Research &amp; Resources:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BuildingGreen:</strong> <a href=\"https://www.buildinggreen.com/\">https://www.buildinggreen.com/</a> - A website with news, articles, and resources on sustainable building.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>GreenBiz:</strong> <a href=\"https://www.greenbiz.com/\">https://www.greenbiz.com/</a> - A website focused on business sustainability, with content on green building.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC):</strong> <a href=\"https://www.usgbc.org/\">https://www.usgbc.org/</a> - Offers research, publications, and case studies on sustainable building practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>The Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC):</strong> <a href=\"https://www.sbicouncil.org/\">https://www.sbicouncil.org/</a> - A non-profit organization dedicated to promoting sustainable buildings.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Case Studies &amp; Inspiration:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>The GreenPix:</strong> <a href=\"https://www.greenpix.com/\">https://www.greenpix.com/</a> - Features a collection of sustainable building projects worldwide.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>ArchDaily:</strong> <a href=\"https://www.archdaily.com/\">https://www.archdaily.com/</a> - An online platform showcasing contemporary architecture, with a section on sustainable projects.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Dezeen:</strong> <a href=\"https://www.dezeen.com/\">https://www.dezeen.com/</a> - A website covering design and architecture, with a focus on sustainability.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Sustainability: Building a Better Future in Construction', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'sustainability-building-a-better-future-in-construction', '', '', '2024-08-19 23:59:16', '2024-08-19 18:29:16', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2344', 0, 'post', '', 1),
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(2100, 1, '2024-06-26 19:03:22', '2024-06-26 13:33:22', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>GRIT CHAMBERS AND COMMINUTORS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary treatment of wastewater is the removal of debris and coarse biodegradables from wastewater with or without stabilizing wastewater by chemical addition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater contains rags, grit, sticks, other large debris, and foreign objects. They make the operation process more complex and problematic.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the method of removal of those objects before primary or subsequent treatment processes is known as the preliminary or pretreatment of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary or pretreatment includes the following methods of treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Screening and <strong>Comminution</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) <strong>Grit removal</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Pre-aeration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Equalization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) pH control</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Flotation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Comminutors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2101,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2101\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2102,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-22.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2102\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comminution is the process of shredding and screening the debris in wastewater to comply with the sludge handling facilities. As an alternative to racks or screens, a comminutor or shredder cuts and grinds up the coarse solids in the wastewater to about 6-10 mm so that the solids will not harm subsequent treatment equipment. The chopped or ground solids are then removed in primary sedimentation basins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A comminutor consists of a fixed screen and a moving cutter. Comminution can eliminate the messy and offensive screenings for solids handling and disposal. Comminutors are installed directly in the wastewater flow channel and are equipped with a bypass so that the unit can be isolated for service maintenance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grit chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2103,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-23.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2103\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2104,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-24.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2104\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit is an inert matter in wastewater that will not decompose during the wastewater treatment process. Generally, those have a specific gravity of around 2.65.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It may be a piece of rock, sand particle, metal, bone, cigarette filter tips, metal fragments, coffee grounds, seeds, large food wastes (organic particles), or even a piece of eggshell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit originates from domestic wastes, stormwater runoff, industrial wastes, and groundwater seepage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These substances can promote excessive wear of mechanical equipment and sludge pumps, and even clog pipes by deposition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers should be provided for all wastewater treatment plants, and are used on systems required for plants receiving sewage from combined sewers or sewer systems receiving a substantial amount of ground garbage or grit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers are usually installed ahead of pumps and comminuting devices.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers can be cleaned manually, mechanically, or using aerated or vortex-type de-gritting units. The chambers can be square, rectangular, or circular.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers are commonly constructed as fairly shallow longitudinal channels to catch high specific gravity grit (1.65). The units are designed to maintain a velocity close to 0.3 m/s and to provide sufficient time for the grit particle to settle to the bottom of the chamber.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grit Removal</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit occupies a large space in the wastewater treatment process if they are not removed. It abrades the machinery and surfaces in the system. Therefore grit removal is very important in wastewater treatment. Grit removal increases the effectiveness of the other treatment processes and reduces the maintenance cost of high-speed centrifuges.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit removal is quite economical compared to the other unit treatment processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are several types of grit chambers. Some of them are; Horizontal flow grit chambers, Detritus chambers, and Aerated grit chambers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2105,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-25.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2105\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The horizontal flow grit chamber is a narrow rectangular chamber that ensures a horizontal channel flow of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The velocity of flow in this chamber is designed in such a way that the suspended organic matter flows forward with the water and the grit (heavier than the suspended organic matter) to settle in the tank. Generally, the velocity of wastewater flow in the grit chamber is 0.3 m/s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Detritus Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Detritus grit chamber is a chamber that is designed to have a lower velocity of flow. This may allow the organic matter to settle with grit. This grit-organic matter mixture is called “detritus”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The organic matter is separated either by gentle aeration or washing detritus to re-suspend. There are several methods to accomplish the separation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Aerated Grit Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2106,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-26.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2106\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the aerated grit chamber, air is diffused to separate the grit from the other matter. Circulation of air promotes the accumulation of grit in the bottom of the tank. Then the grit can be removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The aeration in the preliminary treatment process improves the primary sedimentation more effectively and removes odor. This is also known as pre-aeration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Example – Design of Grit Chamber</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The designed hourly average flow of a municipal wastewater plant is 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec. Design an aerated grit chamber where the detention time of the peak flow rate is 4.0 min. <em>Generally, the detention time is between 3 – 5 min.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Solution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 1</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determine the peak hourly flow Q assuming a peak factor of 3.0.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Q = 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 3 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = 1.314 m<sup>3</sup>/sec</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 2</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate the volume of the grit chamber. Here, it is assumed two grit chambers will be constructed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, for each unit;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Volume = 1.314 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 4 min x 60 sec/min&nbsp; /&nbsp; 2&nbsp; = 157.68 m<sup>3</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 3</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determine the size of a rectangular chamber, assuming the width of the chamber = 3 m and depth-to-width ratio = 1.5:1. <em>The depth-to-width ratio usually varies between 1.5:1 and 2.0:1.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Depth = 3 m x 1.5 = 4.5 m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Length = volume&nbsp; /&nbsp; [depth x width]&nbsp; = 157.68 m<sup>3&nbsp; </sup>/ [4.5 m x 3 m]&nbsp; = 11.68 m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>            <strong>Each of the two chambers having the size of 11.68 m long x 3.0 m wide x 4.5 m deep are to be constructed.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 4</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculation of average volume of grit produced per day</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assume 01 m<sup>3</sup> of inflow of wastewater produces 52.4 ml of grit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Volume of grit = 52.4 ml x 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 86,400 sec / day&nbsp; = 1,982,938 ml / day ≈ 2 m<sup>3 </sup>/ day.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF RAW WASTEWATER', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'preliminary-treatment-of-raw-wastewater-2', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:03:25', '2024-06-26 13:33:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2100', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(2049, 1, '2024-06-12 23:54:51', '2024-06-12 18:24:51', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Groundwater is water that is held in soil, either in a non-saturated or saturated form. The water table is a line showing the change in water content in the soil, below which soil is saturated with water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water in soil often acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. Also, it causes certain difficulties and dangers in the case of excavations to be done. In some soil, such as non-cohesive soil with a coarser grain composition, water can flow through the grain particles. Construction of foundations below the subsoil water level poses problems of waterlogging. It is therefore very often necessary to dewater the area of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation, like laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, and construction of masonry, etc. These works can be carried out more efficiently if the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Reducing the Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To keep the excavated area dry, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation. There are several methods available for lowering the water table.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For fairly dense soil and shallow excavations, the <strong>simplest method</strong> is to have drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water in sumps, and remove it by pumping. This is the most economical method and is feasible for being executed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2050,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2050\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2051,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2051\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where large excavations such as for rafts are to be dewatered, a<strong> wellpoint system</strong> can be employed. This is a method of keeping an excavated area dry by intercepting the groundwater flow with pipe wells driven deep into the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint consists of a perforated pipe, 120 cm long and 4 cm in diameter with a valve to regulate flow and a screen to prevent entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the periphery of the excavation at the required depth and spaced at about 1m. The exact spacing can be decided based on the type of soil.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm diameter pipe known as a riser pipe and is sunk into the ground by jetting. These pipes are connected to a header pipe which is attached to a high capacity suction pump. The groundwater is drawn out by the pumping action and is discharged away from the site of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> wellpoint</strong> at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The water jet dislodges the surrounding soil and enables the wellpoint to be sunk to the desired depth. After the wellpoint has been sunk to the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time (to ensure washing all sand or silt ‘out of the hole) till the return water from the hole is quite clean.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Thereafter the water jet is closed and the annular space formed around the wellpoint (by the jetting action of water) is filled with coarse sand and gravel to form a filter zone around the wellpoint. The filter zone prevents the entry of fine particles of the surrounding soil into the wellpoint and avoids clogging the <strong>wellpoint</strong> screen. The filter sand around the wellpoint should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table is filled with tamped clay to act as a clay seal to minimize air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2052,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2052\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2053,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2053\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After all the wellpoints are installed and connected, the suction pump is put into operation. Due to suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed and the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen. The water from the wellpoint is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is finally discharged away from the worksite.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for depth of excavation up to 18 m. Since the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth, in’ a deep excavation, where it is necessary to lower the water table to a greater depth, a multi-stage system of wellpoint is used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Other Methods for Excavation of Foundation in Water Logged Sites</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following methods are generally adopted while digging <a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wall-footings-or-wall-foundations\">foundation</a> trenches in water-logged sites.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>By constructing deep wells</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In coarse soils, porous rock, or in sites where a large quantity of sub-soil water is required to be drained out, 30 to 60 cm diameter wells are sometimes constructed at 6 to 15 m centers all-round the site for temporary drainage of the ground. The water collected in the wells is pumped out continuously. This method can be adopted for depths of excavation up to 24 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Freezing Process</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This process is suitable for excavations in water-logged soils like sand, gravel, and silt. It is advantageously used for deep excavation such as foundations for bridges, etc. especially when excavation is to be made adjacent to an existing structure or near some waterways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The process consists of forming a sort of coffer darn by freezing the soil around the area to be excavated. Freezing pipes encasing smaller diameter inner pipes are sunk about one-meter from center to center along the periphery of the area to be excavated. The layout of the pipes should preferably be such that the area enclosed is circular in plan.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Freezing liquid is then supplied to the freezing pipes by the refrigeration plant. These make the ground around the pipes freeze and form a thick wall of frozen earth around the area to be excavated. This process can be used up to 30 m depth of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Chemical consolidation of soil</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this method, the <strong>soft water-logged soil</strong> is converted into a semi-solid mass by forcing chemicals like <em>silicates of soda and calcium chloride </em>into the soil. This method is used for small works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Constructing sand drains</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sand drains prove very effective in marshy soils. Soil becomes marshy by the process of deposition of thick layers of clays and silts mixed with organic matter by the passage of time. Marshy soil is thus subjected to capillarity and has a high pore water pressure. When this type of soil is subjected to load, its wet soil contents are gradually pushed out on either side and this results in subsidence of the ground. To avoid this, sand drains are made in the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The diameter of the sand drains normally varies between 300 mm to 450 mm and their center-to-center spacing may vary from 3 to 6 meters. The hole for making the sand drain can be made by driving steel pipe casting into the ground. The drain holes are driven deeper than the marshy layer possibly up to an underlying rock or firm base. The marsh in the pipes is removed using water jets. Selected type of sand is then filled into the pipes and the pipes are withdrawn leaving vertical sand piles in the ground. A thick layer of sand (sand blanket) is spread over the entire area to be consolidated. When the sand layer is subjected to load, the water from the muck of the marshy soil gets squeezed into the vertical sand drains.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\"></a><img class=\"wp-image-2054\" style=\"width: 450px;\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\" alt=\"\"><a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\"></a></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sand Drains</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By capillary action, the water from the sand drains rises and is fed into the sand blanket from where it can be drained out. The objective of consolidation of soil by this method is to develop increased soil resistance to superimposed loads usually consisting of earth fills in highway or airport construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Electro-Osmosis</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Wellpoint system is rendered ineffective in very fine sands, silts, or clay because such soils tend to hold the water by capillary action and offer great resistance to percolation. It has been established that if a direct current is passed through a soil of low permeability, its rate of drainage is greatly increased.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the process of Electro-Osmosis, steel rods forming the positive electrodes are driven into the soil midway between the wellpoints, which are made to act as negative electrodes. When an electric current is passed, the groundwater flows toward the negative electrode (wellpoints) and is pumped out. This requires expensive equipment and hence it is rarely used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grouting</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grouting is often used to stop the penetration of water in sub-soil with high permeability, such as in fissured and jointed rock strata. Rows of holes are bored into the soil and, usually cement grout, are injected under high pressure. The cement grout will penetrate the voids of the sub-soil and form a somewhat impermeable curtain vertically separating the groundwater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cement grout is usually a mixture of cement and water, or cement and sand under a ratio maximum 1:4. Sometimes chemical grout can be used to form a gel which can increase strength and reduce permeability of soil. (e.g. Sodium silicate + calcium chloride = calcium silicate, which is a silica gel).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dewatering in Excavation', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'dewatering-in-excavation', '', '', '2024-06-12 23:54:53', '2024-06-12 18:24:53', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2049', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2056, 1, '2024-06-12 23:54:51', '2024-06-12 18:24:51', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Groundwater is water that is held in soil, either in a non-saturated or saturated form. The water table is a line showing the change in water content in the soil, below which soil is saturated with water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water in soil often acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. Also, it causes certain difficulties and dangers in the case of excavations to be done. In some soil, such as non-cohesive soil with a coarser grain composition, water can flow through the grain particles. Construction of foundations below the subsoil water level poses problems of waterlogging. It is therefore very often necessary to dewater the area of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation, like laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, and construction of masonry, etc. These works can be carried out more efficiently if the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Reducing the Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To keep the excavated area dry, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation. There are several methods available for lowering the water table.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For fairly dense soil and shallow excavations, the <strong>simplest method</strong> is to have drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water in sumps, and remove it by pumping. This is the most economical method and is feasible for being executed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2050,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2050\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2051,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2051\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where large excavations such as for rafts are to be dewatered, a<strong> wellpoint system</strong> can be employed. This is a method of keeping an excavated area dry by intercepting the groundwater flow with pipe wells driven deep into the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint consists of a perforated pipe, 120 cm long and 4 cm in diameter with a valve to regulate flow and a screen to prevent entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the periphery of the excavation at the required depth and spaced at about 1m. The exact spacing can be decided based on the type of soil.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm diameter pipe known as a riser pipe and is sunk into the ground by jetting. These pipes are connected to a header pipe which is attached to a high capacity suction pump. The groundwater is drawn out by the pumping action and is discharged away from the site of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> wellpoint</strong> at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The water jet dislodges the surrounding soil and enables the wellpoint to be sunk to the desired depth. After the wellpoint has been sunk to the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time (to ensure washing all sand or silt ‘out of the hole) till the return water from the hole is quite clean.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Thereafter the water jet is closed and the annular space formed around the wellpoint (by the jetting action of water) is filled with coarse sand and gravel to form a filter zone around the wellpoint. The filter zone prevents the entry of fine particles of the surrounding soil into the wellpoint and avoids clogging the <strong>wellpoint</strong> screen. The filter sand around the wellpoint should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table is filled with tamped clay to act as a clay seal to minimize air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2052,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2052\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2053,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2053\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After all the wellpoints are installed and connected, the suction pump is put into operation. Due to suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed and the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen. The water from the wellpoint is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is finally discharged away from the worksite.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for depth of excavation up to 18 m. Since the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth, in’ a deep excavation, where it is necessary to lower the water table to a greater depth, a multi-stage system of wellpoint is used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Other Methods for Excavation of Foundation in Water Logged Sites</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following methods are generally adopted while digging <a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wall-footings-or-wall-foundations\">foundation</a> trenches in water-logged sites.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>By constructing deep wells</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In coarse soils, porous rock, or in sites where a large quantity of sub-soil water is required to be drained out, 30 to 60 cm diameter wells are sometimes constructed at 6 to 15 m centers all-round the site for temporary drainage of the ground. The water collected in the wells is pumped out continuously. This method can be adopted for depths of excavation up to 24 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Freezing Process</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This process is suitable for excavations in water-logged soils like sand, gravel, and silt. It is advantageously used for deep excavation such as foundations for bridges, etc. especially when excavation is to be made adjacent to an existing structure or near some waterways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The process consists of forming a sort of coffer darn by freezing the soil around the area to be excavated. Freezing pipes encasing smaller diameter inner pipes are sunk about one-meter from center to center along the periphery of the area to be excavated. The layout of the pipes should preferably be such that the area enclosed is circular in plan.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Freezing liquid is then supplied to the freezing pipes by the refrigeration plant. These make the ground around the pipes freeze and form a thick wall of frozen earth around the area to be excavated. This process can be used up to 30 m depth of excavation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Chemical consolidation of soil</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this method, the <strong>soft water-logged soil</strong> is converted into a semi-solid mass by forcing chemicals like <em>silicates of soda and calcium chloride </em>into the soil. This method is used for small works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Constructing sand drains</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sand drains prove very effective in marshy soils. Soil becomes marshy by the process of deposition of thick layers of clays and silts mixed with organic matter by the passage of time. Marshy soil is thus subjected to capillarity and has a high pore water pressure. When this type of soil is subjected to load, its wet soil contents are gradually pushed out on either side and this results in subsidence of the ground. To avoid this, sand drains are made in the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The diameter of the sand drains normally varies between 300 mm to 450 mm and their center-to-center spacing may vary from 3 to 6 meters. The hole for making the sand drain can be made by driving steel pipe casting into the ground. The drain holes are driven deeper than the marshy layer possibly up to an underlying rock or firm base. The marsh in the pipes is removed using water jets. Selected type of sand is then filled into the pipes and the pipes are withdrawn leaving vertical sand piles in the ground. A thick layer of sand (sand blanket) is spread over the entire area to be consolidated. When the sand layer is subjected to load, the water from the muck of the marshy soil gets squeezed into the vertical sand drains.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\"></a><img class=\"wp-image-2054\" style=\"width: 450px;\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\" alt=\"\"><a href=\"http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/30-Sand-Drains.jpg\"></a></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sand Drains</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By capillary action, the water from the sand drains rises and is fed into the sand blanket from where it can be drained out. The objective of consolidation of soil by this method is to develop increased soil resistance to superimposed loads usually consisting of earth fills in highway or airport construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Electro-Osmosis</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Wellpoint system is rendered ineffective in very fine sands, silts, or clay because such soils tend to hold the water by capillary action and offer great resistance to percolation. It has been established that if a direct current is passed through a soil of low permeability, its rate of drainage is greatly increased.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the process of Electro-Osmosis, steel rods forming the positive electrodes are driven into the soil midway between the wellpoints, which are made to act as negative electrodes. When an electric current is passed, the groundwater flows toward the negative electrode (wellpoints) and is pumped out. This requires expensive equipment and hence it is rarely used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grouting</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grouting is often used to stop the penetration of water in sub-soil with high permeability, such as in fissured and jointed rock strata. Rows of holes are bored into the soil and, usually cement grout, are injected under high pressure. The cement grout will penetrate the voids of the sub-soil and form a somewhat impermeable curtain vertically separating the groundwater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cement grout is usually a mixture of cement and water, or cement and sand under a ratio maximum 1:4. Sometimes chemical grout can be used to form a gel which can increase strength and reduce permeability of soil. (e.g. Sodium silicate + calcium chloride = calcium silicate, which is a silica gel).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dewatering in Excavation', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2049-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-12 23:54:51', '2024-06-12 18:24:51', '', 2049, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2056', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2222, 1, '2024-07-15 01:07:54', '2024-07-14 19:37:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Solid materials are classified according to the uniformity with which atoms or ions are arranged with respect to one another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A crystalline materialis one in which the atoms are positioned in a recurring arrangement over large atomic distances. That means a long-range order exists.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern. There, each atom is bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms. All metals, most ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystalline structures under normal solidification conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This long-range atomic order is absent for materials that do not crystallize. Those are called <em>non-crystalline </em>or <em>amorphous </em>materials<strong>. </strong>Examples of such materials are glass and some complex metallic materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Properties of crystalline solids depend on the Crystal Structureof the material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Lattice Space and Unit Cell</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When describing crystalline structures, atoms (or ions) are considered solid spheres with well-defined diameters. This is expressed as the <em>atomic hard sphere model. </em>In this model, spheres representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2208,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2208\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An example of the hard sphere model for the atomic arrangement found in some of the common elemental metals is displayed in the above Figure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this particular case, all the atoms are identical.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the term <strong>lattice </strong>is used in the context of crystal structures. In that sense lattice implies a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions or sphere centers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The unit cell</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The atomic order in crystalline solids shows that small groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern. Therefore, when describing crystal structures, it is easier to subdivide the structure into small repeat entities called unit cells.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure. It establishes the crystal structure by geometry and the atom positions within the unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2209,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Types of Crystal structures of materials</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are 14 types of crystal structures in various engineering materials as shown in the figure above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main crystal structures among all of the above are: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The body-centered cubic structure (BCC).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The face-centered cubic structure (FCC).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Hexagonal close-packed structure (HCP).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2210,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2210\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The crystal structure found in many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry. In these unit cells, atoms are located at each corner and the centers of all the cube faces. It is termed as the <strong>face-centered cubic (FCC) </strong>crystal structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the common metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mechanical properties of FCC are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low Young’s modulus,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low hardness,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Good ductility,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High ability for forming.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Figure <strong>(</strong><em>a</em><strong>) </strong>illustrates the hard sphere model for the FCC unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Figure <strong>(</strong><em>b</em><strong>) </strong>the atom centers are represented by small circles to provide a better perspective of atom positions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The collection of atoms in Figure <strong>(</strong><em>c</em><strong>) </strong>represents a section of crystal consisting of many FCC unit cells. These spheres or ion cores touch one another along a face diagonal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cube edge length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and the atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through;                                                               </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2211,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2211\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the FCC crystal structure, each corner atom is shared between eight unit cells. However, a face-centered atom belongs to only two. Therefore, 1/8<sup>th</sup> of each of the 8 corner atoms and 1/2 of each of the 6 face atoms, or a total of 4 whole atoms, is assigned to a given unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two other important characteristics of a crystal structure are the <strong>Coordination number </strong>and the <strong>Atomic Packing Factor (APF).</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For metals, each atom has the same number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms, which is the coordination number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2212,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2212\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For face-centered cubic, <strong>the coordination number is 12</strong>. This may be confirmed by examination of the Figure. Below the front face atom, there are 4 corner nearest-neighbor atoms surrounding it, 4 face atoms that are in contact from behind, and 4 other equivalent face atoms residing in the next unit cell to the front, which is not shown.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The APF </strong>is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2213,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2213\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the FCC structure, the<strong> atomic packing factor </strong>is<strong> 0.74</strong>, which is the maximum packing possible for spheres with the same diameter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2214,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2214\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A collection of spheres showing BCC crystal structure is shown in Figure <strong>(</strong>c<strong>)</strong>, whereas Figures (a)and (b)are diagrams of BCC unit cells with the atoms represented by hard sphere and reduced-sphere models, respectively</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another common metallic crystal structure having a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center is shown above. This is called a <strong>Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) </strong>crystal structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Chromium, iron, and tungsten are listed as having a BCC structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their mechanical properties are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High young modulus,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High hardness,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High tensile strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Limited ability to form.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals, and unit cell length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through;  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2215,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2215\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2216,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2216\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are 2 atoms associated with each BCC unit cell. It is the equivalent of 1 atom from the 8 corners, each shared among 8 unit cells, and the single center atom wholly contained within its cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8. </strong>Each center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner atoms as shown in the figure above. Since the coordination number is less for BCC than FCC, so also is the <strong>atomic packing factor for BCC is lower, 0.68 </strong>versus 0.74.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2217,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2217\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2218,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2218\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All metals do not have unit cells with cubic symmetry. The final common metallic crystal structure having a unit cell is hexagonal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Figure <strong>(</strong><em>a</em><strong>) </strong>shows a reduced-sphere unit cell for this structure. It is termed <strong>Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP). </strong>It is an assemblage of several HCP unit cells presented in Figure <strong>(</strong><em>b</em><strong>)</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of 6 atoms. It forms standard hexagons and encircles a single atom in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another plane that provides 3 additional atoms to the unit cell is located between the top and bottom planes. The atoms in this mid-plane have as nearest neighbors atoms in both of the adjacent two planes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The equivalent of 6 atoms is contained in each unit cell, 1/6<sup>th</sup> of each of the 12 top and bottom face corner atoms, 1/2 of each of the 2 center face atoms, and all 3 mid-plane interior atoms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2219,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2219\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The<strong> coordination number </strong>and the<strong> atomic packing factor </strong>for the HCP crystal structure are the same as for FCC: 12 and 0.74, respectively, see figure above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unit cell length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; a = 2R</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their properties are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>brittle,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Inability to form.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Atomic Radii and Crystal Structures for 16 Metals</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2220,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2220\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2207-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-15 01:07:54', '2024-07-14 19:37:54', '', 2207, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2222', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2059, 1, '2024-06-13 21:13:03', '2024-06-13 15:43:03', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main objective of most underpinning work is to transfer the load carried by a foundation from its existing bearing level to a new level at a lower depth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Underpinning techniques can also be used to replace an existing weak foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An underpinning operation may be necessary for one or more of the following reasons:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Uneven Settlement - this could be caused by uneven loading of the building, unequal resistance of the soil action of tree roots, or cohesive soil settlement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Increase in Loading - this could be due to the addition of an extra storey or an increase in imposed loadings such as that which may occur with a change of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Lowering of Adjacent Ground - usually required when constructing a basement adjacent to existing foundations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>General Precautions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before any form of underpinning work is commenced the following precautions should be taken;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Notify adjoining owners of proposed works giving full details and temporary shoring or tying.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Carry out a detailed survey of the site, the building to be underpinned, and any other adjoining or adjacent buildings or structures. A careful record of any defects found should be made and where possible agreed with the adjoining owner(s) before being lodged in a safe place.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Indicators should be fixed over existing cracks so that any subsequent movements can be noted and monitored.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. If the settlement is the reason for the underpinning works a thorough investigation should be carried out to establish the cause and any necessary remedial work put in hand before any underpinning works are started.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Before any underpinning work is started the loads on the building to be underpinned should be reduced as much as possible by removing the imposed loads from the floors and installing any props and/or shoring which is required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Any services that are in the vicinity of the proposed underpinning works should be identified, traced, carefully exposed, supported, and protected as necessary.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Underpinning to Walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To prevent fracture, damage, or settlement of the wall(s) being underpinned the work should always be carried out in short lengths called legs or bays.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The length of these bays will depend upon the following factors:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Total length of wall to be underpinned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Wall loading.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. General state of repair and stability of wall and foundation to be underpinned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Nature of subsoil beneath the existing foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Estimated spanning ability of existing foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, suitable bay lengths are:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.000 to 1.500 m for mass concrete strip foundations supporting walls of traditional construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.500 to 3.000 m for reinforced concrete strip foundations supporting walls of moderate loading.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In all cases, the total sum of the unsupported lengths of the walls should not exceed 25% of the total wall length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sequence of bays should be arranged so that working in adjoining bays is avoided until one leg of underpinning has been completed, pinned, and cured sufficiently to support the wall above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2060,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2060\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Jack Pile Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be used when the depth of a suitable bearing capacity subsoil is too deep to make traditional underpinning uneconomic. Jack pile underpinning is quiet, vibration-free, and flexible since the pile depth can be adjusted to suit the subsoil conditions encountered. The existing foundations must be in good condition since they will have to span over the heads of the pile caps which are cast onto the jack pile heads after the hydraulic jacks have been removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2061,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2061\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2062,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2062\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Needle and Pile Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method of underpinning can be used where the condition of the existing foundation is unsuitable for traditional or jack pile underpinning techniques. The brickwork above the existing foundation must be in a sound condition since this method relies on the ‘arching effect\' of the brick bonding to transmit the wall loads onto the needles and ultimately to the piles. The piles used with this method are usually small-diameter bored piles.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2063,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2063\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>‘Pynford’ Stool Method of Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be used where the existing foundations are in poor condition and it enables the wall to be underpinned in a continuous run without the need for needles or shoring. The reinforced concrete beam formed by this method may well be adequate to spread the load of the existing wall or it may be used in conjunction with other forms of underpinning such as traditional and jack piles.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2064,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2064\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>`Bullivant\' Patent Angle Piling</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is a much simpler alternative to traditional underpinning techniques, applying modern concrete drilling equipment to achieve cost benefits through time-saving. The process is also considerably less disruptive, as large volumes of excavation are avoided. Where sound-bearing strata can be located within a few meters of the surface, wall stability is achieved through lined reinforced concrete piles installed in pairs, at opposing angles. The existing floor, wall, and foundation are pre-drilled with air flushed percussion auger, giving access for a steel lining to be driven through the low-grade/clay subsoil until it impacts with firm strata. The lining is cut to terminate at the underside of the foundation and the void is steel-reinforced before concreting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2065,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2065\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many situations, it is impractical to apply angle piling to both sides of a wall. Subject to subsoil conditions being adequate, it may be acceptable to apply remedial treatment from one side only. The piles will need to be relatively close-spaced.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Underpinning Columns</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Columns can be underpinned in the same manner as walls using traditional or jack pile methods after the columns have been relieved of their loadings. The beam loads can usually be transferred from the columns using dead shores and the actual column load can be transferred using a pair of beams acting against a collar attached to the base of the column shaft.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2066,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2066\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'MODIFICATIONS IN BUILDINGS - UNDERPINNING', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'modifications-in-buildings-underpinning', '', '', '2024-06-13 21:13:30', '2024-06-13 15:43:30', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2059', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2068, 1, '2024-06-13 21:13:03', '2024-06-13 15:43:03', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main objective of most underpinning work is to transfer the load carried by a foundation from its existing bearing level to a new level at a lower depth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Underpinning techniques can also be used to replace an existing weak foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An underpinning operation may be necessary for one or more of the following reasons:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Uneven Settlement - this could be caused by uneven loading of the building, unequal resistance of the soil action of tree roots, or cohesive soil settlement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Increase in Loading - this could be due to the addition of an extra storey or an increase in imposed loadings such as that which may occur with a change of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Lowering of Adjacent Ground - usually required when constructing a basement adjacent to existing foundations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>General Precautions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before any form of underpinning work is commenced the following precautions should be taken;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Notify adjoining owners of proposed works giving full details and temporary shoring or tying.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Carry out a detailed survey of the site, the building to be underpinned, and any other adjoining or adjacent buildings or structures. A careful record of any defects found should be made and where possible agreed with the adjoining owner(s) before being lodged in a safe place.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Indicators should be fixed over existing cracks so that any subsequent movements can be noted and monitored.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. If the settlement is the reason for the underpinning works a thorough investigation should be carried out to establish the cause and any necessary remedial work put in hand before any underpinning works are started.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Before any underpinning work is started the loads on the building to be underpinned should be reduced as much as possible by removing the imposed loads from the floors and installing any props and/or shoring which is required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Any services that are in the vicinity of the proposed underpinning works should be identified, traced, carefully exposed, supported, and protected as necessary.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Underpinning to Walls</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To prevent fracture, damage, or settlement of the wall(s) being underpinned the work should always be carried out in short lengths called legs or bays.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The length of these bays will depend upon the following factors:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Total length of wall to be underpinned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Wall loading.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. General state of repair and stability of wall and foundation to be underpinned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Nature of subsoil beneath the existing foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Estimated spanning ability of existing foundation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, suitable bay lengths are:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.000 to 1.500 m for mass concrete strip foundations supporting walls of traditional construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.500 to 3.000 m for reinforced concrete strip foundations supporting walls of moderate loading.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In all cases, the total sum of the unsupported lengths of the walls should not exceed 25% of the total wall length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sequence of bays should be arranged so that working in adjoining bays is avoided until one leg of underpinning has been completed, pinned, and cured sufficiently to support the wall above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2060,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2060\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Jack Pile Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be used when the depth of a suitable bearing capacity subsoil is too deep to make traditional underpinning uneconomic. Jack pile underpinning is quiet, vibration-free, and flexible since the pile depth can be adjusted to suit the subsoil conditions encountered. The existing foundations must be in good condition since they will have to span over the heads of the pile caps which are cast onto the jack pile heads after the hydraulic jacks have been removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2061,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2061\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2062,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2062\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Needle and Pile Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method of underpinning can be used where the condition of the existing foundation is unsuitable for traditional or jack pile underpinning techniques. The brickwork above the existing foundation must be in a sound condition since this method relies on the ‘arching effect\' of the brick bonding to transmit the wall loads onto the needles and ultimately to the piles. The piles used with this method are usually small-diameter bored piles.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2063,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2063\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>‘Pynford’ Stool Method of Underpinning</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be used where the existing foundations are in poor condition and it enables the wall to be underpinned in a continuous run without the need for needles or shoring. The reinforced concrete beam formed by this method may well be adequate to spread the load of the existing wall or it may be used in conjunction with other forms of underpinning such as traditional and jack piles.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2064,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2064\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>`Bullivant\' Patent Angle Piling</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is a much simpler alternative to traditional underpinning techniques, applying modern concrete drilling equipment to achieve cost benefits through time-saving. The process is also considerably less disruptive, as large volumes of excavation are avoided. Where sound-bearing strata can be located within a few meters of the surface, wall stability is achieved through lined reinforced concrete piles installed in pairs, at opposing angles. The existing floor, wall, and foundation are pre-drilled with air flushed percussion auger, giving access for a steel lining to be driven through the low-grade/clay subsoil until it impacts with firm strata. The lining is cut to terminate at the underside of the foundation and the void is steel-reinforced before concreting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2065,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2065\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many situations, it is impractical to apply angle piling to both sides of a wall. Subject to subsoil conditions being adequate, it may be acceptable to apply remedial treatment from one side only. The piles will need to be relatively close-spaced.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Underpinning Columns</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Columns can be underpinned in the same manner as walls using traditional or jack pile methods after the columns have been relieved of their loadings. The beam loads can usually be transferred from the columns using dead shores and the actual column load can be transferred using a pair of beams acting against a collar attached to the base of the column shaft.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2066,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2066\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'MODIFICATIONS IN BUILDINGS - UNDERPINNING', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2059-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-13 21:13:03', '2024-06-13 15:43:03', '', 2059, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2068', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2071, 1, '2024-06-13 22:49:16', '2024-06-13 17:19:16', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bailey Bridge is also known as a&nbsp;<a href=\"https://steelbaileybridges.com/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">prefabricated road steel bridge. It </a>was invented by British Engineer Donald Coleman Bailey in 1938.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These bridges use high-strength steel as a material and are manufactured into a lightweight standardized bridge unit construction, including beams, longitudinal beams, bridge decks, bridge seats, and connectors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bailey Bridge is a modular prefabricated steel bridge. It is connected by steel Bailey panels through bolts and other fasteners. Its simple structure makes it especially suitable for situations requiring rapid bridge construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The concept behind the Bailey Bridge was to offer a temporary bridge that could rapidly and manually be created in emergencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Baily bridges can be quickly assembled at sites, for various spans and loads with only dedicated installation equipment. The Bailey bridge was originally used in the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://steelbaileybridges.com/solutions/army-bailey-bridge/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">military bridge</a>&nbsp;field. However, it has been widely used in the civilian field since the 1960s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Components of Bailey bridge</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2073,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/bailey-bridge-parts-transformed.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2073\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The basic Bailey bridge is made up of three main parts,&nbsp;the floor, the stringers, and the side panels. The floor of the bridge is made up of several 19-foot-wide transoms (5.8 m) that run across the bridge. Across the bottom of these, forming a square, are 10-foot-long stringers (3.0 m).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It can stand to a&nbsp;maximum free span length of 51 meters (167.30 feet), with a deck net width of 4 meters (13.10 feet). The bridge panels are composed of welded high-grade structural steel elements. The girders are lightweight composite panels connected by strong steel pins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The larger spans of such bridges can be as long as&nbsp;69 meters, and the width of the lanes can reach about 3.7 meters. When wheeled vehicles are running on it, the allowable maximum speed is 30 kilometers per hour, and the allowable speed of tracked armored vehicles is 5 kilometers per hour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How long does it take to build a Bailey bridge?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It may vary with the number of men used on construction, with the size and span, etc. But forty men can construct a complete bridge. In ideal conditions, a short and single-tier bridge can be assembled in&nbsp;three to four hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The longest Bailey bridge was built in October 1975. This 788-meters (2,585 ft), two-lane bridge crossed the Derwent River at Hobart, Australia. It was opened around a year after the Tasman Bridge disaster destroyed the only river crossing, dividing the city in two.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>A typical Bailey bridge construction process</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main steps of Bailey Bridge construction include measuring and positioning the position of the bridge, pier pouring, assembly of Bailey bridge, installation of Bailey bridge, landing and correcting the position of the main body of the bridge on the other bank, laying of the bridge deck and laying of connecting roads on both sides of the bridge deck, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Determination Of The Bailey Bridge Location</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>According to the requirements of the Bailey Bridge design drawings, the site is measured to determine the positions of the piers on both sides of the Bailey Bridge. A&nbsp;hydraulic backhoe is needed to clean the roadbed. The excavation size for bridge pier construction is&nbsp;approximately <strong>5m×3m</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. How To Pour The Piers Of Bailey Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the position of processed bridge piers, a 1.5m×1m M7.5 mortar masonry foundation is first made, and then C30 concrete is used for pouring. When the concrete reaches&nbsp;<strong>80%</strong>&nbsp;of the design strength, the Bailey bridge can be erected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Start To Assemble The Bailey Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Deliver various parts from the Bailey Bridge parts list to the construction site. After the pier pouring is completed, the assembly of the components of the Bailey Bridge can be started.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2074,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/cb100-bailey-bridge-design-drawing.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2074\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The longitudinal beams and cross beams of the Bailey bridge are composed of<strong>&nbsp;7</strong>&nbsp;standard double-row reinforced Bailey panels, assembled in a single layer, as the main load-bearing members of the bridge body. The main Bailey beams of each group are assembled by&nbsp;<strong>2</strong>&nbsp;rows of standard truss pieces, arranged with a spacing of&nbsp;<strong>0.75m</strong>, and are staggered with&nbsp;<strong>0.75m×1.5m</strong>&nbsp;support frames. The main Bailey frame beams of each group are connected by a standard support frame between the spans. The main Bailey beam is also connected by a standard support frame in the vertical direction between the spans. A support frame is used for horizontal connection between groups.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. How To Install Bailey Bridge？</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the bridge construction site has a suitable site for assembling Bailey pieces, or there is no other special bad terrain, the&nbsp;<strong>cantilever push-out method</strong>&nbsp;can be used for the installation of the Bailey bridge. When installing the Bailey bridge in a narrow site or a special terrain, the&nbsp;<strong>wire rope sling method</strong>&nbsp;can be considered to install it or design an appropriate installation method according to the actual situation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When adopting the cantilever push-out method, firstly, rollers are installed on both banks of the river, and the bridge trusses and connecting beams are installed on the rollers pushed out of the bank. Then use the loader located on the other side of the river for towing. Each time a group of Bailey panels is installed, it advances a certain distance. Until the entire bridge body is pushed to the opposite bank.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2075,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/1969284.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2075\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the bridge body reaches the opposite bank, hydraulic jacks are used to place the Bailey structure at the bridgehead into the bridge seat. After the angle adjustment of the measuring instrument, it finally falls into a precise position.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. Laying Of Bridge Deck</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The deck structure of Bailey Bridge is laid with standard parts of cross beams and longitudinal beams. Wooden or steel bridge decks can be selected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. Construction Of Roads At Both Ends Of The Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Backfilling the road connecting the original construction road and the bridge with gravel has to be done for the completion of the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'BAILEY BRIDGE CONSTRUCTIONS', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'bailey-bridge-constructions', '', '', '2024-06-13 22:49:18', '2024-06-13 17:19:18', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2071', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2075, 1, '2024-06-13 22:45:50', '2024-06-13 17:15:50', '', 'PH24_05032022_JAMBATAN', 'ROMPIN, 5 Mac -- Petugas Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) dan anggota Angkatan Tentera Malaysia (ATM) dari Skuadron Ke 11 Rejimen Askar Jurutera Mekanize dan Skuadron Ke 8 Rejimen Askar Jurutera DiRaja giat menjalankan kerja-kerja pemasangan  jambatan bailey atau jambatan panel keluli bermodular sepanjang 140 kaki di laluan FT2490 jalan masuk ke Perwira Jaya dan Selancar yang runtuh akibat banjir hari ini.\n\nKerja-kerja pemasangan melibatkan kekuatan 50 petugas Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) dan 30 anggota Angkatan Tentera Malaysia (ATM) dari Skuadron Ke 11 Rejimen Askar Jurutera Mekanize dan Skuadron Ke 8 Rejimen Askar Jurutera DiRaja yang bermula semalam dijangka siap dan boleh digunakan esok.\n\nRuntuhan jalan yang dianggarkan 23 Meter itu mengakibatkan kira-kira 12,000 penduduk setempat mengalami kesukaran untuk ke bandar selepas jalan berkenaan tidak boleh dilalui oleh semua jenis kenderaan.\n\n-- fotoBERNAMA (2023) HAK CIPTA TERPELIHARA', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'ph24_05032022_jambatan', '', '', '2024-06-13 22:45:50', '2024-06-13 17:15:50', '', 2071, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/1969284.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2076, 1, '2024-06-13 22:49:16', '2024-06-13 17:19:16', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bailey Bridge is also known as a&nbsp;<a href=\"https://steelbaileybridges.com/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">prefabricated road steel bridge. It </a>was invented by British Engineer Donald Coleman Bailey in 1938.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These bridges use high-strength steel as a material and are manufactured into a lightweight standardized bridge unit construction, including beams, longitudinal beams, bridge decks, bridge seats, and connectors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bailey Bridge is a modular prefabricated steel bridge. It is connected by steel Bailey panels through bolts and other fasteners. Its simple structure makes it especially suitable for situations requiring rapid bridge construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The concept behind the Bailey Bridge was to offer a temporary bridge that could rapidly and manually be created in emergencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Baily bridges can be quickly assembled at sites, for various spans and loads with only dedicated installation equipment. The Bailey bridge was originally used in the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://steelbaileybridges.com/solutions/army-bailey-bridge/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">military bridge</a>&nbsp;field. However, it has been widely used in the civilian field since the 1960s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Components of Bailey bridge</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2073,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/bailey-bridge-parts-transformed.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2073\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The basic Bailey bridge is made up of three main parts,&nbsp;the floor, the stringers, and the side panels. The floor of the bridge is made up of several 19-foot-wide transoms (5.8 m) that run across the bridge. Across the bottom of these, forming a square, are 10-foot-long stringers (3.0 m).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It can stand to a&nbsp;maximum free span length of 51 meters (167.30 feet), with a deck net width of 4 meters (13.10 feet). The bridge panels are composed of welded high-grade structural steel elements. The girders are lightweight composite panels connected by strong steel pins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The larger spans of such bridges can be as long as&nbsp;69 meters, and the width of the lanes can reach about 3.7 meters. When wheeled vehicles are running on it, the allowable maximum speed is 30 kilometers per hour, and the allowable speed of tracked armored vehicles is 5 kilometers per hour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How long does it take to build a Bailey bridge?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It may vary with the number of men used on construction, with the size and span, etc. But forty men can construct a complete bridge. In ideal conditions, a short and single-tier bridge can be assembled in&nbsp;three to four hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The longest Bailey bridge was built in October 1975. This 788-meters (2,585 ft), two-lane bridge crossed the Derwent River at Hobart, Australia. It was opened around a year after the Tasman Bridge disaster destroyed the only river crossing, dividing the city in two.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>A typical Bailey bridge construction process</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main steps of Bailey Bridge construction include measuring and positioning the position of the bridge, pier pouring, assembly of Bailey bridge, installation of Bailey bridge, landing and correcting the position of the main body of the bridge on the other bank, laying of the bridge deck and laying of connecting roads on both sides of the bridge deck, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Determination Of The Bailey Bridge Location</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>According to the requirements of the Bailey Bridge design drawings, the site is measured to determine the positions of the piers on both sides of the Bailey Bridge. A&nbsp;hydraulic backhoe is needed to clean the roadbed. The excavation size for bridge pier construction is&nbsp;approximately <strong>5m×3m</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. How To Pour The Piers Of Bailey Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the position of processed bridge piers, a 1.5m×1m M7.5 mortar masonry foundation is first made, and then C30 concrete is used for pouring. When the concrete reaches&nbsp;<strong>80%</strong>&nbsp;of the design strength, the Bailey bridge can be erected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Start To Assemble The Bailey Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Deliver various parts from the Bailey Bridge parts list to the construction site. After the pier pouring is completed, the assembly of the components of the Bailey Bridge can be started.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2074,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/cb100-bailey-bridge-design-drawing.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2074\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The longitudinal beams and cross beams of the Bailey bridge are composed of<strong>&nbsp;7</strong>&nbsp;standard double-row reinforced Bailey panels, assembled in a single layer, as the main load-bearing members of the bridge body. The main Bailey beams of each group are assembled by&nbsp;<strong>2</strong>&nbsp;rows of standard truss pieces, arranged with a spacing of&nbsp;<strong>0.75m</strong>, and are staggered with&nbsp;<strong>0.75m×1.5m</strong>&nbsp;support frames. The main Bailey frame beams of each group are connected by a standard support frame between the spans. The main Bailey beam is also connected by a standard support frame in the vertical direction between the spans. A support frame is used for horizontal connection between groups.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. How To Install Bailey Bridge？</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the bridge construction site has a suitable site for assembling Bailey pieces, or there is no other special bad terrain, the&nbsp;<strong>cantilever push-out method</strong>&nbsp;can be used for the installation of the Bailey bridge. When installing the Bailey bridge in a narrow site or a special terrain, the&nbsp;<strong>wire rope sling method</strong>&nbsp;can be considered to install it or design an appropriate installation method according to the actual situation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When adopting the cantilever push-out method, firstly, rollers are installed on both banks of the river, and the bridge trusses and connecting beams are installed on the rollers pushed out of the bank. Then use the loader located on the other side of the river for towing. Each time a group of Bailey panels is installed, it advances a certain distance. Until the entire bridge body is pushed to the opposite bank.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2075,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/1969284.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2075\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the bridge body reaches the opposite bank, hydraulic jacks are used to place the Bailey structure at the bridgehead into the bridge seat. After the angle adjustment of the measuring instrument, it finally falls into a precise position.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. Laying Of Bridge Deck</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The deck structure of Bailey Bridge is laid with standard parts of cross beams and longitudinal beams. Wooden or steel bridge decks can be selected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. Construction Of Roads At Both Ends Of The Bridge</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Backfilling the road connecting the original construction road and the bridge with gravel has to be done for the completion of the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'BAILEY BRIDGE CONSTRUCTIONS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2071-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-13 22:49:16', '2024-06-13 17:19:16', '', 2071, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2076', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2079, 1, '2024-06-13 22:55:10', '2024-06-13 17:25:10', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Objectives of wastewater treatments</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The traditional aim of wastewater treatment is to enable wastewater to be disposed of safely, without being a danger to public health and without polluting watercourses or causing other nuisances. Recovering energy, nutrients, water, and other valuable resources are other important aims of wastewater treatments.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater is contaminated with a variety of microbial pathogens and other organic and inorganic pollutants. If they are not controlled through wastewater treatment, these can contribute to environmental and public health problems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Apart from microbial pathogens, wastewater contains suspended solids (measured as turbidity and/or total suspended solids (TSS)), oxygen-depleting organic matter (measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD)), and nutrients (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus). All of these adversely affect the receiving water bodies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Because domestic water use is considered non-consumptive, the process returns most of the extracted water back to the environment, where it lowers water quality. It has been estimated that every cubic meter of untreated wastewater discharged to surface water makes 8–10 m<sup>3</sup> of freshwater unusable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is in Wastewater?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater is mostly water by weight. Other materials makeup only a small portion of wastewater but can be present in large enough quantities to endanger public health and the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Practically, anything that can be flushed down a toilet, drain, or sewer can be found in wastewater. Even household sewage contains many possible pollutants. The wastewater components that should be of most concern to homeowners and communities are those that can cause disease or detrimental environmental effects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Organisms</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many different types of organisms live in wastewater. Some are essential contributors to treatment activities. A variety of bacteria, protozoa, and worms consume certain carbon-based (organic) pollutants in wastewater and break down them. During the process of wastewater treatment, organisms turn wastes into carbon dioxide, water, or new cell growth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are plentiful bacteria and other microorganisms in wastewater and they help to do most of the treatment. Any wastewater treatment systems are designed mostly to rely on biological processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pathogens</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many disease-causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria are present in wastewater. They can enter into water from anywhere in the community. These pathogens commonly originate from people and animals that are infected with or are carriers of a disease. Gray water and black water from typical homes contain enough pathogens to create a risk to public health. Hospitals, schools, farms, and food processing plants are other likely sources in communities that may contain pathogens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some illnesses from wastewater-related sources are relatively common. For example, Gastroenteritis can result from a variety of pathogens in wastewater. Hepatitis A, typhoid, polio, cholera, and dysentery are other important wastewater-related diseases. Outbreaks of these diseases can occur as a result of drinking water from wells polluted by wastewater, eating contaminated fish, or recreational activities in polluted waters. Some illnesses can be spread by animals and insects that come in contact with wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Organic Matter</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic materials are found everywhere in the environment. They are composed of carbon-based chemicals that are the basic elements of most living things. <em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>In addition to water which constitutes about 70% of a cell\'s mass, cells are composed of carbon-based compounds that may contain up to 30 or so carbon atoms. These carbon-based compounds include the four biological macromolecules that make up all living things:&nbsp;</em><em>carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic materials in wastewater originate from plants, animals, or synthetic organic compounds, and enter wastewater in human wastes, paper products, detergents, cosmetics, foods, and from agricultural, commercial, and industrial sources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic compounds are a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. Many organics are proteins, carbohydrates, or fats and are biodegradable. It means they can be consumed and broken down by organisms. However, even biodegradable materials can cause pollution. Too much organic matter in wastewater can be disturbing to receiving waters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large amounts of biodegradable materials are dangerous to lakes, streams, and oceans. It is because the organisms use dissolved oxygen in the water to break down the wastes, reducing or depleting the supply of oxygen in the water needed by aquatic life. It results in fish kills, odors, and overall degradation of water quality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of oxygen organisms need to break down wastes in wastewater is referred to as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and is one of the measurements used to assess overall wastewater strength.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some organic compounds are more stable than others. They cannot be quickly broken down by organisms. It creates an additional challenge for treatment. This is true of many synthetic organic compounds developed for agricultural and industrial uses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition, certain synthetic organics are highly toxic. Pesticides and herbicides are toxic to humans, fish, and aquatic plants. They are often disposed of improperly in drains or carried in stormwater. When receiving those into water bodies, they kill or contaminate fish, making them unfit to eat. They also can damage processes in treatment plants. Benzene and toluene are two toxic organic compounds mostly found in some solvents, pesticides, and other products.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Oil and Grease</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fatty organic materials from animals, vegetables, and petroleum are not quickly broken down by bacteria. They also cause pollution in receiving environments. When large amounts of oils and greases are discharged to receiving waters from community systems, they increase BOD. Also, they may float to the surface and harden, causing aesthetically unpleasing conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They also can trap trash, plants, and other materials, causing foul odors, and attracting flies, mosquitoes, and other disease vectors. In some cases, too much oil and grease causes septic conditions in ponds and lakes and prevents oxygen from the atmosphere from reaching the water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Inorganics</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Inorganic minerals, metals, and compounds, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc are common in wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources. They can originate from a variety of sources in the community. These include industrial and commercial sources, stormwater, inflow from leaky manhole covers, and infiltration from cracked pipes. Most inorganic substances are relatively stable, and cannot be broken down easily by organisms in wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large amounts of many inorganic substances can contaminate soil and water. Some are toxic to animals and humans and may accumulate in the environment. For this reason, extra treatment steps are often required to remove inorganic materials from industrial wastewater sources. For example, heavy metals which are discharged with many types of industrial wastewater, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment methods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Nutrients</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater often contains large amounts of nutrients, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the form of nitrate and phosphate, which promote plant growth. Organisms only require small amounts of nutrients in biological treatment, so there normally is an excess available in treated wastewater. In severe cases, excessive nutrients in receiving waters cause algae and other plants to grow quickly depleting oxygen in the water. If deprived of oxygen, fish and other aquatic life may die, emitting foul odors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Solids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Solid materials in wastewater can consist of organic and/or inorganic materials and organisms. The solids must be significantly reduced by treatment or they can increase BOD when discharged to receiving waters and provide places for microorganisms to escape disinfection. They also can clog soil absorption fields in onsite systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Settleable solids</strong> - Certain substances, such as sand, grit, and heavier organic and inorganic materials settle out from the rest of the wastewater stream during the preliminary stages of treatment. On the bottom of settling tanks and ponds, organic material makes up a biologically active layer of sludge that aids in treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Suspended solids </strong>- Materials that resist settling may remain suspended in wastewater. Suspended solids in wastewater must be treated, or they will clog soil absorption systems or reduce the effectiveness of disinfection systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Dissolved solids</strong> - Small particles of certain wastewater materials can dissolve like salt in water. Some dissolved materials are consumed by microorganisms in wastewater. But others, such as heavy metals, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment. Excessive amounts of dissolved solids in wastewater can have adverse effects on the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Gases</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Certain gases in wastewater can cause odors, affect treatment, or are potentially dangerous. Methane gas, for example, is a byproduct of anaerobic biological treatment and is highly combustible. Special precautions need to be taken near septic tanks, manholes, treatment plants, and other areas where wastewater gases can be collected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The gases hydrogen sulfide and ammonia can be toxic and pose breathing problems. Ammonia as a dissolved gas in wastewater also is dangerous to fish. Both gases emit odors, which can be a serious nuisance. Unless effectively contained or minimized by design and location, wastewater odors can affect the mental well-being and quality of life of residents. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Waste Water Disposal', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'waste-water-disposal', '', '', '2024-06-13 22:55:12', '2024-06-13 17:25:12', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2079', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2081, 1, '2024-06-13 22:55:10', '2024-06-13 17:25:10', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Objectives of wastewater treatments</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The traditional aim of wastewater treatment is to enable wastewater to be disposed of safely, without being a danger to public health and without polluting watercourses or causing other nuisances. Recovering energy, nutrients, water, and other valuable resources are other important aims of wastewater treatments.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater is contaminated with a variety of microbial pathogens and other organic and inorganic pollutants. If they are not controlled through wastewater treatment, these can contribute to environmental and public health problems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Apart from microbial pathogens, wastewater contains suspended solids (measured as turbidity and/or total suspended solids (TSS)), oxygen-depleting organic matter (measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD)), and nutrients (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus). All of these adversely affect the receiving water bodies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Because domestic water use is considered non-consumptive, the process returns most of the extracted water back to the environment, where it lowers water quality. It has been estimated that every cubic meter of untreated wastewater discharged to surface water makes 8–10 m<sup>3</sup> of freshwater unusable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is in Wastewater?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater is mostly water by weight. Other materials makeup only a small portion of wastewater but can be present in large enough quantities to endanger public health and the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Practically, anything that can be flushed down a toilet, drain, or sewer can be found in wastewater. Even household sewage contains many possible pollutants. The wastewater components that should be of most concern to homeowners and communities are those that can cause disease or detrimental environmental effects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Organisms</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many different types of organisms live in wastewater. Some are essential contributors to treatment activities. A variety of bacteria, protozoa, and worms consume certain carbon-based (organic) pollutants in wastewater and break down them. During the process of wastewater treatment, organisms turn wastes into carbon dioxide, water, or new cell growth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are plentiful bacteria and other microorganisms in wastewater and they help to do most of the treatment. Any wastewater treatment systems are designed mostly to rely on biological processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pathogens</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many disease-causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria are present in wastewater. They can enter into water from anywhere in the community. These pathogens commonly originate from people and animals that are infected with or are carriers of a disease. Gray water and black water from typical homes contain enough pathogens to create a risk to public health. Hospitals, schools, farms, and food processing plants are other likely sources in communities that may contain pathogens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some illnesses from wastewater-related sources are relatively common. For example, Gastroenteritis can result from a variety of pathogens in wastewater. Hepatitis A, typhoid, polio, cholera, and dysentery are other important wastewater-related diseases. Outbreaks of these diseases can occur as a result of drinking water from wells polluted by wastewater, eating contaminated fish, or recreational activities in polluted waters. Some illnesses can be spread by animals and insects that come in contact with wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Organic Matter</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic materials are found everywhere in the environment. They are composed of carbon-based chemicals that are the basic elements of most living things. <em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>In addition to water which constitutes about 70% of a cell\'s mass, cells are composed of carbon-based compounds that may contain up to 30 or so carbon atoms. These carbon-based compounds include the four biological macromolecules that make up all living things:&nbsp;</em><em>carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic materials in wastewater originate from plants, animals, or synthetic organic compounds, and enter wastewater in human wastes, paper products, detergents, cosmetics, foods, and from agricultural, commercial, and industrial sources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic compounds are a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. Many organics are proteins, carbohydrates, or fats and are biodegradable. It means they can be consumed and broken down by organisms. However, even biodegradable materials can cause pollution. Too much organic matter in wastewater can be disturbing to receiving waters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large amounts of biodegradable materials are dangerous to lakes, streams, and oceans. It is because the organisms use dissolved oxygen in the water to break down the wastes, reducing or depleting the supply of oxygen in the water needed by aquatic life. It results in fish kills, odors, and overall degradation of water quality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of oxygen organisms need to break down wastes in wastewater is referred to as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and is one of the measurements used to assess overall wastewater strength.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some organic compounds are more stable than others. They cannot be quickly broken down by organisms. It creates an additional challenge for treatment. This is true of many synthetic organic compounds developed for agricultural and industrial uses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition, certain synthetic organics are highly toxic. Pesticides and herbicides are toxic to humans, fish, and aquatic plants. They are often disposed of improperly in drains or carried in stormwater. When receiving those into water bodies, they kill or contaminate fish, making them unfit to eat. They also can damage processes in treatment plants. Benzene and toluene are two toxic organic compounds mostly found in some solvents, pesticides, and other products.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Oil and Grease</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fatty organic materials from animals, vegetables, and petroleum are not quickly broken down by bacteria. They also cause pollution in receiving environments. When large amounts of oils and greases are discharged to receiving waters from community systems, they increase BOD. Also, they may float to the surface and harden, causing aesthetically unpleasing conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They also can trap trash, plants, and other materials, causing foul odors, and attracting flies, mosquitoes, and other disease vectors. In some cases, too much oil and grease causes septic conditions in ponds and lakes and prevents oxygen from the atmosphere from reaching the water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Inorganics</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Inorganic minerals, metals, and compounds, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc are common in wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources. They can originate from a variety of sources in the community. These include industrial and commercial sources, stormwater, inflow from leaky manhole covers, and infiltration from cracked pipes. Most inorganic substances are relatively stable, and cannot be broken down easily by organisms in wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large amounts of many inorganic substances can contaminate soil and water. Some are toxic to animals and humans and may accumulate in the environment. For this reason, extra treatment steps are often required to remove inorganic materials from industrial wastewater sources. For example, heavy metals which are discharged with many types of industrial wastewater, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment methods.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Nutrients</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wastewater often contains large amounts of nutrients, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the form of nitrate and phosphate, which promote plant growth. Organisms only require small amounts of nutrients in biological treatment, so there normally is an excess available in treated wastewater. In severe cases, excessive nutrients in receiving waters cause algae and other plants to grow quickly depleting oxygen in the water. If deprived of oxygen, fish and other aquatic life may die, emitting foul odors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Solids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Solid materials in wastewater can consist of organic and/or inorganic materials and organisms. The solids must be significantly reduced by treatment or they can increase BOD when discharged to receiving waters and provide places for microorganisms to escape disinfection. They also can clog soil absorption fields in onsite systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Settleable solids</strong> - Certain substances, such as sand, grit, and heavier organic and inorganic materials settle out from the rest of the wastewater stream during the preliminary stages of treatment. On the bottom of settling tanks and ponds, organic material makes up a biologically active layer of sludge that aids in treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Suspended solids </strong>- Materials that resist settling may remain suspended in wastewater. Suspended solids in wastewater must be treated, or they will clog soil absorption systems or reduce the effectiveness of disinfection systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Dissolved solids</strong> - Small particles of certain wastewater materials can dissolve like salt in water. Some dissolved materials are consumed by microorganisms in wastewater. But others, such as heavy metals, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment. Excessive amounts of dissolved solids in wastewater can have adverse effects on the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Gases</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Certain gases in wastewater can cause odors, affect treatment, or are potentially dangerous. Methane gas, for example, is a byproduct of anaerobic biological treatment and is highly combustible. Special precautions need to be taken near septic tanks, manholes, treatment plants, and other areas where wastewater gases can be collected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The gases hydrogen sulfide and ammonia can be toxic and pose breathing problems. Ammonia as a dissolved gas in wastewater also is dangerous to fish. Both gases emit odors, which can be a serious nuisance. Unless effectively contained or minimized by design and location, wastewater odors can affect the mental well-being and quality of life of residents. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Waste Water Disposal', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2079-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-13 22:55:10', '2024-06-13 17:25:10', '', 2079, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2081', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2207, 1, '2024-07-15 01:07:54', '2024-07-14 19:37:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Solid materials are classified according to the uniformity with which atoms or ions are arranged with respect to one another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A crystalline materialis one in which the atoms are positioned in a recurring arrangement over large atomic distances. That means a long-range order exists.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern. There, each atom is bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms. All metals, most ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystalline structures under normal solidification conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This long-range atomic order is absent for materials that do not crystallize. Those are called <em>non-crystalline </em>or <em>amorphous </em>materials<strong>. </strong>Examples of such materials are glass and some complex metallic materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Properties of crystalline solids depend on the Crystal Structureof the material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Lattice Space and Unit Cell</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When describing crystalline structures, atoms (or ions) are considered solid spheres with well-defined diameters. This is expressed as the <em>atomic hard sphere model. </em>In this model, spheres representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2208,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2208\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An example of the hard sphere model for the atomic arrangement found in some of the common elemental metals is displayed in the above Figure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this particular case, all the atoms are identical.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the term <strong>lattice </strong>is used in the context of crystal structures. In that sense lattice implies a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions or sphere centers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The unit cell</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The atomic order in crystalline solids shows that small groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern. Therefore, when describing crystal structures, it is easier to subdivide the structure into small repeat entities called unit cells.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure. It establishes the crystal structure by geometry and the atom positions within the unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2209,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Types of Crystal structures of materials</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are 14 types of crystal structures in various engineering materials as shown in the figure above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main crystal structures among all of the above are: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The body-centered cubic structure (BCC).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The face-centered cubic structure (FCC).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Hexagonal close-packed structure (HCP).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2210,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2210\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The crystal structure found in many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry. In these unit cells, atoms are located at each corner and the centers of all the cube faces. It is termed as the <strong>face-centered cubic (FCC) </strong>crystal structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the common metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The mechanical properties of FCC are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low Young’s modulus,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low hardness,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Good ductility,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High ability for forming.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Figure <strong>(</strong><em>a</em><strong>) </strong>illustrates the hard sphere model for the FCC unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Figure <strong>(</strong><em>b</em><strong>) </strong>the atom centers are represented by small circles to provide a better perspective of atom positions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The collection of atoms in Figure <strong>(</strong><em>c</em><strong>) </strong>represents a section of crystal consisting of many FCC unit cells. These spheres or ion cores touch one another along a face diagonal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cube edge length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and the atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through;                                                               </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2211,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2211\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the FCC crystal structure, each corner atom is shared between eight unit cells. However, a face-centered atom belongs to only two. Therefore, 1/8<sup>th</sup> of each of the 8 corner atoms and 1/2 of each of the 6 face atoms, or a total of 4 whole atoms, is assigned to a given unit cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two other important characteristics of a crystal structure are the <strong>Coordination number </strong>and the <strong>Atomic Packing Factor (APF).</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For metals, each atom has the same number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms, which is the coordination number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2212,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2212\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For face-centered cubic, <strong>the coordination number is 12</strong>. This may be confirmed by examination of the Figure. Below the front face atom, there are 4 corner nearest-neighbor atoms surrounding it, 4 face atoms that are in contact from behind, and 4 other equivalent face atoms residing in the next unit cell to the front, which is not shown.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The APF </strong>is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2213,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2213\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the FCC structure, the<strong> atomic packing factor </strong>is<strong> 0.74</strong>, which is the maximum packing possible for spheres with the same diameter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2214,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2214\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A collection of spheres showing BCC crystal structure is shown in Figure <strong>(</strong>c<strong>)</strong>, whereas Figures (a)and (b)are diagrams of BCC unit cells with the atoms represented by hard sphere and reduced-sphere models, respectively</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another common metallic crystal structure having a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center is shown above. This is called a <strong>Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) </strong>crystal structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Chromium, iron, and tungsten are listed as having a BCC structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their mechanical properties are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High young modulus,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High hardness,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>High tensile strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Limited ability to form.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals, and unit cell length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through;  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2215,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2215\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2216,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2216\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are 2 atoms associated with each BCC unit cell. It is the equivalent of 1 atom from the 8 corners, each shared among 8 unit cells, and the single center atom wholly contained within its cell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8. </strong>Each center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner atoms as shown in the figure above. Since the coordination number is less for BCC than FCC, so also is the <strong>atomic packing factor for BCC is lower, 0.68 </strong>versus 0.74.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2217,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2217\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2218,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2218\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All metals do not have unit cells with cubic symmetry. The final common metallic crystal structure having a unit cell is hexagonal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Figure <strong>(</strong><em>a</em><strong>) </strong>shows a reduced-sphere unit cell for this structure. It is termed <strong>Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP). </strong>It is an assemblage of several HCP unit cells presented in Figure <strong>(</strong><em>b</em><strong>)</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of 6 atoms. It forms standard hexagons and encircles a single atom in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another plane that provides 3 additional atoms to the unit cell is located between the top and bottom planes. The atoms in this mid-plane have as nearest neighbors atoms in both of the adjacent two planes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The equivalent of 6 atoms is contained in each unit cell, 1/6<sup>th</sup> of each of the 12 top and bottom face corner atoms, 1/2 of each of the 2 center face atoms, and all 3 mid-plane interior atoms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2219,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2219\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The<strong> coordination number </strong>and the<strong> atomic packing factor </strong>for the HCP crystal structure are the same as for FCC: 12 and 0.74, respectively, see figure above.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unit cell length <strong><em>a </em></strong>and atomic radius <strong><em>R </em></strong>are related through</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; a = 2R</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their properties are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>brittle,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Low yield strength,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Inability to form.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Atomic Radii and Crystal Structures for 16 Metals</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2220,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2220\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'crystal-structure-of-metals', '', '', '2024-07-15 01:07:57', '2024-07-14 19:37:57', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2207', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2085, 1, '2024-06-17 01:28:08', '2024-06-16 19:58:08', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Natural waters in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs have a natural waste assimilative capacity to remove solids and organic matter. Even toxic chemicals in the wastewater can be removed in natural systems up to some extent. However, it is a long process. Therefore, Wastewater treatment facilities are designed to speed up the natural purification process that occurs in natural waters. If not, the contaminants in wastewater might interfere with the natural process in the receiving waters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Varying quantities of suspended and floating solids, organic matter, and fragments of debris are carried in wastewater. Therefore, conventional wastewater treatment systems are designed as combinations of physical and biological processes to remove all impurities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The alternative methods for municipal wastewater treatment are classified into three major categories:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (1) primary (physical process) treatment,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (2) secondary (biological process) treatment, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (3) tertiary (combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes) or advanced treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ultimate goal of wastewater treatment processes is to produce clean effluents and to protect public health, natural resources, and the ambient environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Preliminary Treatment Systems&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary systems are designed to remove the larger suspended and floating materials. It also removes heavy inorganic solids and excessive amounts of oil and grease.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect pumping equipment and the subsequent treatment units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary systems consist of flow measurement devices and regulators (flow equalization), racks and screens, comminuting devices (grinders, cutters, and shredders), flow equalization, grit chambers, pre-aeration tanks, and (possibly) chlorination.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the quality of wastewater is not substantially improved by preliminary treatments.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The object of primary treatment is to reduce the flow velocity of the wastewater sufficiently to permit suspended solids to settle, i.e. to remove settleable materials. Floating materials are also removed by skimming. Hence, a primary treatment device may be called a settling tank.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Settling tanks can be divided into four groups: plain sedimentation with mechanical sludge removal, two-storey tanks (Imhoff tank), upflow clarifiers with mechanical sludge removal, and septic tanks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When chemicals are applied, other auxiliary units such as chemical feeders, mixing devices, flocculators, and sludge management (treatment and disposal of) are required if there is no further treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The physical process of sedimentation in settling tanks removes approximately 50-70 percent of total suspended solids from the wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The BOD<sub>5</sub> removal efficiency of the primary system is 25-35 percent. When some coagulants are applied in settling tanks, more colloidal as well as settleable solids, or a total of 80-90 percent of Total Settlable Solids (TSS), can be removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Approximately 10 percent of the phosphorus corresponding insoluble is normally removed by primary settling.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Secondary Treatment Systems</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After primary treatment, the wastewater still contains organic matter in suspended, colloidal, and dissolved states. This matter should be removed before discharging to receiving waters. Otherwise, these interfere with subsequent downstream users of stream water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment is used to remove the soluble and colloidal organic matter which remains after primary treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although the removal of those materials can be affected by physicochemical means providing further removal of suspended solids, secondary treatment is commonly referred to as the biological process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Biological treatment consists of the application of a controlled natural process in which a very large number of microorganisms consume soluble and colloidal organic matter from the wastewater in a relatively small container over a reasonable time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment devices may be divided into two groups: attached and suspended growth processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The attached (film) growth processes are trickling filters, rotating biologic contactors (RBC), and intermittent sand filters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The suspended growth processes include activated sludge and its modifications, such as contact stabilization (aeration) tanks, sequencing batch reactors, aerobic and anaerobic digestors, anaerobic filters, stabilization ponds, and aerated lagoons.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment processes may remove more than 85 percent of BOD<sub>5</sub> and TSS. However, they are not effective for the removal of nutrients (N and P), heavy metals, non-biodegradable organic matter, bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disinfection is also needed to reduce the densities of microorganisms. Additionally, secondary clarifiers are required to remove solids from the secondary processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sludge generated from the primary and secondary clarifiers needs to undergo treatment and proper disposal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advanced Treatment Systems</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advanced wastewater treatment is defined as the methods and processes that remove more contaminants from wastewater than conventional treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term advanced treatment may be applied to any system that follows the secondary, or that modifies or replaces a step in the conventional process. The term tertiary treatment is often used as a synonym; however, the two are not synonymous.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A tertiary system is the third treatment step that is used after primary and secondary treatment processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advanced processes include chemical coagulation of wastewater, wedge-wire screens, granular media filters, diatomaceous earth filters, micro screening, and ultrafiltration and nanofiltration, which are used to remove colloidal and fine-size suspended solids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Techniques such as biological assimilation, nitrification (conversion of ammonia to nitrogen &amp; nitrate), denitrification, ion exchange, breakpoint chlorination, and air stripping are used for nitrogen control. Soluble phosphorus is removed by chemical precipitation and biological (bacteria and algae) uptake for normal cell growth in a control system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Filtration is required after chemical and biological processes. Physical processes such as reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration are used for phosphorus reduction, but these are primarily for overall dissolved inorganic solids reduction. The use of lagoons, aerated lagoons, and natural and constructed wetlands is used for nutrient (N and P) removal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Removal of some species of groups of toxic compounds and refractory organics can be achieved by activated carbon adsorption, air stripping, activated sludge, powder-activated carbon processes, and chemical oxidation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional coagulation-sedimentation-filtration &amp; biological treatment (trickling filter, RBC, and activated sludge) processes are also used to remove the priority pollutants &amp; organic compounds.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PROCESSES USED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENTS', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'processes-used-in-wastewater-treatments', '', '', '2024-06-17 01:28:09', '2024-06-16 19:58:09', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2085', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2087, 1, '2024-06-17 01:28:08', '2024-06-16 19:58:08', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Natural waters in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs have a natural waste assimilative capacity to remove solids and organic matter. Even toxic chemicals in the wastewater can be removed in natural systems up to some extent. However, it is a long process. Therefore, Wastewater treatment facilities are designed to speed up the natural purification process that occurs in natural waters. If not, the contaminants in wastewater might interfere with the natural process in the receiving waters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Varying quantities of suspended and floating solids, organic matter, and fragments of debris are carried in wastewater. Therefore, conventional wastewater treatment systems are designed as combinations of physical and biological processes to remove all impurities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The alternative methods for municipal wastewater treatment are classified into three major categories:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (1) primary (physical process) treatment,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (2) secondary (biological process) treatment, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (3) tertiary (combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes) or advanced treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ultimate goal of wastewater treatment processes is to produce clean effluents and to protect public health, natural resources, and the ambient environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Preliminary Treatment Systems&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary systems are designed to remove the larger suspended and floating materials. It also removes heavy inorganic solids and excessive amounts of oil and grease.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect pumping equipment and the subsequent treatment units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary systems consist of flow measurement devices and regulators (flow equalization), racks and screens, comminuting devices (grinders, cutters, and shredders), flow equalization, grit chambers, pre-aeration tanks, and (possibly) chlorination.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the quality of wastewater is not substantially improved by preliminary treatments.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The object of primary treatment is to reduce the flow velocity of the wastewater sufficiently to permit suspended solids to settle, i.e. to remove settleable materials. Floating materials are also removed by skimming. Hence, a primary treatment device may be called a settling tank.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Settling tanks can be divided into four groups: plain sedimentation with mechanical sludge removal, two-storey tanks (Imhoff tank), upflow clarifiers with mechanical sludge removal, and septic tanks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When chemicals are applied, other auxiliary units such as chemical feeders, mixing devices, flocculators, and sludge management (treatment and disposal of) are required if there is no further treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The physical process of sedimentation in settling tanks removes approximately 50-70 percent of total suspended solids from the wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The BOD<sub>5</sub> removal efficiency of the primary system is 25-35 percent. When some coagulants are applied in settling tanks, more colloidal as well as settleable solids, or a total of 80-90 percent of Total Settlable Solids (TSS), can be removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Approximately 10 percent of the phosphorus corresponding insoluble is normally removed by primary settling.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Secondary Treatment Systems</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After primary treatment, the wastewater still contains organic matter in suspended, colloidal, and dissolved states. This matter should be removed before discharging to receiving waters. Otherwise, these interfere with subsequent downstream users of stream water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment is used to remove the soluble and colloidal organic matter which remains after primary treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although the removal of those materials can be affected by physicochemical means providing further removal of suspended solids, secondary treatment is commonly referred to as the biological process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Biological treatment consists of the application of a controlled natural process in which a very large number of microorganisms consume soluble and colloidal organic matter from the wastewater in a relatively small container over a reasonable time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment devices may be divided into two groups: attached and suspended growth processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The attached (film) growth processes are trickling filters, rotating biologic contactors (RBC), and intermittent sand filters.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The suspended growth processes include activated sludge and its modifications, such as contact stabilization (aeration) tanks, sequencing batch reactors, aerobic and anaerobic digestors, anaerobic filters, stabilization ponds, and aerated lagoons.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondary treatment processes may remove more than 85 percent of BOD<sub>5</sub> and TSS. However, they are not effective for the removal of nutrients (N and P), heavy metals, non-biodegradable organic matter, bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disinfection is also needed to reduce the densities of microorganisms. Additionally, secondary clarifiers are required to remove solids from the secondary processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sludge generated from the primary and secondary clarifiers needs to undergo treatment and proper disposal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advanced Treatment Systems</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advanced wastewater treatment is defined as the methods and processes that remove more contaminants from wastewater than conventional treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term advanced treatment may be applied to any system that follows the secondary, or that modifies or replaces a step in the conventional process. The term tertiary treatment is often used as a synonym; however, the two are not synonymous.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A tertiary system is the third treatment step that is used after primary and secondary treatment processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advanced processes include chemical coagulation of wastewater, wedge-wire screens, granular media filters, diatomaceous earth filters, micro screening, and ultrafiltration and nanofiltration, which are used to remove colloidal and fine-size suspended solids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Techniques such as biological assimilation, nitrification (conversion of ammonia to nitrogen &amp; nitrate), denitrification, ion exchange, breakpoint chlorination, and air stripping are used for nitrogen control. Soluble phosphorus is removed by chemical precipitation and biological (bacteria and algae) uptake for normal cell growth in a control system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Filtration is required after chemical and biological processes. Physical processes such as reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration are used for phosphorus reduction, but these are primarily for overall dissolved inorganic solids reduction. The use of lagoons, aerated lagoons, and natural and constructed wetlands is used for nutrient (N and P) removal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Removal of some species of groups of toxic compounds and refractory organics can be achieved by activated carbon adsorption, air stripping, activated sludge, powder-activated carbon processes, and chemical oxidation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional coagulation-sedimentation-filtration &amp; biological treatment (trickling filter, RBC, and activated sludge) processes are also used to remove the priority pollutants &amp; organic compounds.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PROCESSES USED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENTS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2085-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-17 01:28:08', '2024-06-16 19:58:08', '', 2085, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2087', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2090, 1, '2024-06-17 01:37:34', '2024-06-16 20:07:34', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>RACKS AND SCREENS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary treatment of wastewater is the removal of debris and coarse biodegradables from wastewater with or without stabilizing wastewater by chemical addition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater contains rags, grit, sticks, other large debris, and foreign objects. They make the operation process more complex and problematic.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the method of removal of those objects before primary or subsequent treatment processes is known as the preliminary or pretreatment of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary or pretreatment includes the following methods of treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Screening and comminution</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Grit removal</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Pre-aeration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Equalization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) pH control</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Flotation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SCREENING DEVICES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2091,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2091\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2092,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2092\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2093,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2093\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2094,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2094\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater is fed into the sewer system either as gravity flow or by pumping into the treatment plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Screening is generally the first operation unit at wastewater treatment plants. These screening units include racks, coarse screens, and fine screens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purpose of using racks and screens in preliminary treatment is to remove large objects flowing with wastewater, for example, rags, plastics, paper, metals, dead animals, and the like. Removal of these large objects helps to protect pumps located downstream and prevent solids from fouling subsequent treatment facilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Racks and Screens</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Coarse Screens</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Coarse Screens are categorized as either bar racks (trash racks) or bar screens. The categorization depends on the spacing between the bars. Bar racks have a clear spacing of 5 to 10 cm, whereas bar screens typically have a clear spacing of 0.65 to 5 cm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Both consist of a vertical arrangement of equally spaced parallel bars intended to trap coarse debris.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The debris captured on the bar screen depends on the bar spacing and the amount of debris caught on the screen.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Clear openings for manually cleaned screens between bars should be from 25 to 45 mm. Manually cleaned screens should be placed on a slope of 30-45 degrees to the horizontal, to help easy operations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For manually, as well as for mechanically raked bar screens, the maximum velocities during peak flow periods should not exceed 0.76 m/s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hydraulic losses through bar racks are a function of approach (upstream) velocity, and the velocity through the bars (downstream), with a discharge coefficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Fine Screens</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fine screens are used more frequently in wastewater treatment plants for preliminary treatment or preliminary/primary treatment purposes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fine screens typically consist of wedge-wire, perforated plates, or closely spaced bars with openings 1.5 to 6.4 mm. Fine screens used for preliminary treatment are rotary or stationary-type units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clean water head loss through fine screens can be obtained from manufacturers\' rating tables or by computing using the common orifice equations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF RAW WASTEWATER', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'preliminary-treatment-of-raw-wastewater', '', '', '2024-06-17 01:37:35', '2024-06-16 20:07:35', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2090', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2096, 1, '2024-06-17 01:37:34', '2024-06-16 20:07:34', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>RACKS AND SCREENS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary treatment of wastewater is the removal of debris and coarse biodegradables from wastewater with or without stabilizing wastewater by chemical addition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater contains rags, grit, sticks, other large debris, and foreign objects. They make the operation process more complex and problematic.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the method of removal of those objects before primary or subsequent treatment processes is known as the preliminary or pretreatment of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary or pretreatment includes the following methods of treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Screening and comminution</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Grit removal</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Pre-aeration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Equalization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) pH control</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Flotation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SCREENING DEVICES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2091,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2091\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2092,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2092\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2093,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2093\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2094,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2094\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater is fed into the sewer system either as gravity flow or by pumping into the treatment plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Screening is generally the first operation unit at wastewater treatment plants. These screening units include racks, coarse screens, and fine screens.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purpose of using racks and screens in preliminary treatment is to remove large objects flowing with wastewater, for example, rags, plastics, paper, metals, dead animals, and the like. Removal of these large objects helps to protect pumps located downstream and prevent solids from fouling subsequent treatment facilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Racks and Screens</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Coarse Screens</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Coarse Screens are categorized as either bar racks (trash racks) or bar screens. The categorization depends on the spacing between the bars. Bar racks have a clear spacing of 5 to 10 cm, whereas bar screens typically have a clear spacing of 0.65 to 5 cm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Both consist of a vertical arrangement of equally spaced parallel bars intended to trap coarse debris.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The debris captured on the bar screen depends on the bar spacing and the amount of debris caught on the screen.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Clear openings for manually cleaned screens between bars should be from 25 to 45 mm. Manually cleaned screens should be placed on a slope of 30-45 degrees to the horizontal, to help easy operations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For manually, as well as for mechanically raked bar screens, the maximum velocities during peak flow periods should not exceed 0.76 m/s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hydraulic losses through bar racks are a function of approach (upstream) velocity, and the velocity through the bars (downstream), with a discharge coefficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Fine Screens</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fine screens are used more frequently in wastewater treatment plants for preliminary treatment or preliminary/primary treatment purposes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Fine screens typically consist of wedge-wire, perforated plates, or closely spaced bars with openings 1.5 to 6.4 mm. Fine screens used for preliminary treatment are rotary or stationary-type units.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clean water head loss through fine screens can be obtained from manufacturers\' rating tables or by computing using the common orifice equations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF RAW WASTEWATER', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2090-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-17 01:37:34', '2024-06-16 20:07:34', '', 2090, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2096', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2227, 1, '2024-07-21 23:21:49', '2024-07-21 17:51:49', '', 'SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'scene-construction-site-with-equipment', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:22:11', '2024-07-21 17:52:11', '', 2226, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/scene-construction-site-with-equipment.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2228, 1, '2024-07-21 23:25:10', '2024-07-21 17:55:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The work on a site for a low-rise building involves the preparatory work to commence construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It starts with checking the plot boundaries as soon as the site is made available for construction. The first thing to do is to check that the boundary stones are in place and that the dimensions of the boundaries tally with those given in the site plans. Any discrepancies should be reconciled before the commencement of any other work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Site Preparation work</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Land clearing including demolition of existing buildings and disposal or recycling of waste;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Grading and earthwork </strong>- The topsoil should be removed to a depth of 100-150 mm and the excavated topsoil is mostly retained on site for landscaping work on completion of construction. The site is graded by cutting and filling as required. Clearing and grading are now mostly done with mechanical plants.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Stormwater drainage and erosion control</strong> - The site should be graded to provide proper stormwater drainage. Having the topsoil removed, the ground is prone to erosion and the fast flow of water on site should be avoided. If the water table is high pumping out ground water may be required during foundation work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Roads</strong> – Roads and footpaths are required on the site for the movement of workers and the transport of material. The access roads and footpaths designed during the site layout should be properly created with suitable surfacing, curbs, and drains. For sites of long duration and heavy vehicular traffic, the roads may be asphalted on the temporary subgrade.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Services</strong> – Water, electricity, telephones, fuel, etc., are the services required depending on the size and duration of construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Source of water supply may be: Mains supply (usually with site storage facilities) / Dug or sunk wells (with pumping and storage facility)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Electricity </strong>– from mains service or generator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Fuel </strong>- stored in sites form safety hazards and proper, dedicated storage facilities should be provided.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Telephones and other communication</strong> – Land telephone, mobile services, e-mail and facsimile facilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Temporary buildings</strong> – The temporary buildings required in a site are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Site office</strong> - Locate in a place free of noise and dust. Provide reasonable office facilities – adequate furniture for office and site meetings, Communication (telephone, fax, e-mail), computer, stationery, toilets, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Worker’s mess</strong> - Away from work areas, adequate space and facilities for the workforce, First Aid, Recreation, and Sleeping facilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Canteen</strong> - Away from work areas, adequate facilities, and space for the workforce, Cooking, Dining.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Stores</strong> - Locate in good view of security and easily accessible place for loading and unloading, Covered stores for perishable materials (Cement, etc.), Lock up store for valuable materials, Open storage/stacking for bulk materials –</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cement</strong> - Under cover, near mixer, theft-proof</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Aggregates </strong>- Near mixer</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Timber </strong>- Inside crane radius or near the hoist</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Steel </strong>- Ease of delivery, room for bending/fabrication, near the hoist</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Bricks and blocks</strong> - Ease of delivery, near the hoist</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Doors, windows, sanitary fittings</strong>,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Glass </strong>- Ease of delivery, safe storage (easily damaged)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Fuel </strong>- Isolated to prevent hazard</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Formwork </strong>- Room for fabrication, inside crane radius</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Toilets and lavatories</strong> - Locate downwind from work areas, Ensure good drainage, Provide adequate water, and Provide for easy cleaning and maintenance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Hoarding and fences</strong> – Security fences and netting for the safety of workers and the general public.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Name boards, safety notices, and safety signs.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Plant and Equipment</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Crane &amp; Hoist</strong> - Maximum weight to be lifted, Load capacity at different radii, anchorage, near main work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Mixer</strong> - Near main work, Near aggregate and hoist, inside crane radii</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Generator </strong>- Isolated</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Block maker </strong>- Near mixer set up</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Steel bender </strong>- Near steel store</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Power saws</strong> - Near timber store</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2226-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:25:10', '2024-07-21 17:55:10', '', 2226, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2228', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2108, 1, '2024-06-26 19:03:22', '2024-06-26 13:33:22', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>GRIT CHAMBERS AND COMMINUTORS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary treatment of wastewater is the removal of debris and coarse biodegradables from wastewater with or without stabilizing wastewater by chemical addition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wastewater contains rags, grit, sticks, other large debris, and foreign objects. They make the operation process more complex and problematic.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the method of removal of those objects before primary or subsequent treatment processes is known as the preliminary or pretreatment of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preliminary or pretreatment includes the following methods of treatment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Screening and <strong>Comminution</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) <strong>Grit removal</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Pre-aeration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Equalization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) pH control</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Flotation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Comminutors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2101,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2101\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2102,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-22.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2102\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comminution is the process of shredding and screening the debris in wastewater to comply with the sludge handling facilities. As an alternative to racks or screens, a comminutor or shredder cuts and grinds up the coarse solids in the wastewater to about 6-10 mm so that the solids will not harm subsequent treatment equipment. The chopped or ground solids are then removed in primary sedimentation basins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A comminutor consists of a fixed screen and a moving cutter. Comminution can eliminate the messy and offensive screenings for solids handling and disposal. Comminutors are installed directly in the wastewater flow channel and are equipped with a bypass so that the unit can be isolated for service maintenance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grit chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2103,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-23.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2103\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2104,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-24.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2104\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit is an inert matter in wastewater that will not decompose during the wastewater treatment process. Generally, those have a specific gravity of around 2.65.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It may be a piece of rock, sand particle, metal, bone, cigarette filter tips, metal fragments, coffee grounds, seeds, large food wastes (organic particles), or even a piece of eggshell.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit originates from domestic wastes, stormwater runoff, industrial wastes, and groundwater seepage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These substances can promote excessive wear of mechanical equipment and sludge pumps, and even clog pipes by deposition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers should be provided for all wastewater treatment plants, and are used on systems required for plants receiving sewage from combined sewers or sewer systems receiving a substantial amount of ground garbage or grit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers are usually installed ahead of pumps and comminuting devices.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers can be cleaned manually, mechanically, or using aerated or vortex-type de-gritting units. The chambers can be square, rectangular, or circular.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit chambers are commonly constructed as fairly shallow longitudinal channels to catch high specific gravity grit (1.65). The units are designed to maintain a velocity close to 0.3 m/s and to provide sufficient time for the grit particle to settle to the bottom of the chamber.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Grit Removal</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit occupies a large space in the wastewater treatment process if they are not removed. It abrades the machinery and surfaces in the system. Therefore grit removal is very important in wastewater treatment. Grit removal increases the effectiveness of the other treatment processes and reduces the maintenance cost of high-speed centrifuges.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Grit removal is quite economical compared to the other unit treatment processes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are several types of grit chambers. Some of them are; Horizontal flow grit chambers, Detritus chambers, and Aerated grit chambers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2105,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-25.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2105\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The horizontal flow grit chamber is a narrow rectangular chamber that ensures a horizontal channel flow of wastewater.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The velocity of flow in this chamber is designed in such a way that the suspended organic matter flows forward with the water and the grit (heavier than the suspended organic matter) to settle in the tank. Generally, the velocity of wastewater flow in the grit chamber is 0.3 m/s.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Detritus Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Detritus grit chamber is a chamber that is designed to have a lower velocity of flow. This may allow the organic matter to settle with grit. This grit-organic matter mixture is called “detritus”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The organic matter is separated either by gentle aeration or washing detritus to re-suspend. There are several methods to accomplish the separation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Aerated Grit Chamber</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2106,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-26.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2106\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the aerated grit chamber, air is diffused to separate the grit from the other matter. Circulation of air promotes the accumulation of grit in the bottom of the tank. Then the grit can be removed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The aeration in the preliminary treatment process improves the primary sedimentation more effectively and removes odor. This is also known as pre-aeration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Example – Design of Grit Chamber</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The designed hourly average flow of a municipal wastewater plant is 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec. Design an aerated grit chamber where the detention time of the peak flow rate is 4.0 min. <em>Generally, the detention time is between 3 – 5 min.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Solution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 1</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determine the peak hourly flow Q assuming a peak factor of 3.0.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Q = 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 3 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = 1.314 m<sup>3</sup>/sec</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 2</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate the volume of the grit chamber. Here, it is assumed two grit chambers will be constructed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, for each unit;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Volume = 1.314 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 4 min x 60 sec/min&nbsp; /&nbsp; 2&nbsp; = 157.68 m<sup>3</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 3</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determine the size of a rectangular chamber, assuming the width of the chamber = 3 m and depth-to-width ratio = 1.5:1. <em>The depth-to-width ratio usually varies between 1.5:1 and 2.0:1.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Depth = 3 m x 1.5 = 4.5 m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Length = volume&nbsp; /&nbsp; [depth x width]&nbsp; = 157.68 m<sup>3&nbsp; </sup>/ [4.5 m x 3 m]&nbsp; = 11.68 m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>            <strong>Each of the two chambers having the size of 11.68 m long x 3.0 m wide x 4.5 m deep are to be constructed.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Step 4</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculation of average volume of grit produced per day</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assume 01 m<sup>3</sup> of inflow of wastewater produces 52.4 ml of grit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Volume of grit = 52.4 ml x 0.438 m<sup>3</sup>/sec x 86,400 sec / day&nbsp; = 1,982,938 ml / day ≈ 2 m<sup>3 </sup>/ day.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF RAW WASTEWATER', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2100-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:03:22', '2024-06-26 13:33:22', '', 2100, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2108', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2111, 1, '2024-06-26 19:35:53', '2024-06-26 14:05:53', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction projects tend to use more and more mechanical construction methods to keep up with the present trend of mechanization of industries in the world.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of construction equipment could be up to around 40% of the total cost of a project. A contractor may use general and specialized types of equipment to complete a construction task within the stipulated time and maintain quality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the prime factors one should have in mind is to keep the estimated construction costs as low as possible. That will ultimately contribute to the profit of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To calculate the unit costs of various construction tasks, it is necessary to estimate the costs of using construction equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, a contractor may hire or lease construction equipment to execute the work. The organization or individual, who hires or leases equipment will have to estimate the owning and operating costs to establish the hire rate for the plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is necessary to understand how owning and operating costs are estimated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the construction industry, the productivity of construction equipment is expressed on an hourly or daily basis. Therefore, the owning and operating costs of construction equipment are also estimated on an hourly or daily basis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Elements of owning and operating costs of equipment</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2112,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-27.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2112\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Owning Costs</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These costs are also called fixed costs as these have to be incurred even when the equipment is not being operated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The owning costs comprise the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Hourly Depreciation Costs</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Interests on borrowings</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Insurance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Custom duty, taxes, road taxes, etc.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Depreciation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation in accounting is an estimate expressed in terms of costs, of the amount of service potential of a depreciable asset that expires in a given period. The depreciation may be caused due to physical deterioration or obsolescence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Physical deterioration results from use, wear and tear, etc. Even if a good maintenance and repair practice is in effect, equipment will have to be eventually discarded.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Obsolescence refers to when equipment becomes out of date or obsolete. An item of equipment may exist in sound physical condition, but it may be outdated as more efficient, economical, and higher-quality machines have become available.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation distributes <strong>systematically and rationally</strong> the cost of depreciable equipment less salvage value over the useful life of the equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As said in the earlier statement to estimate periodic depreciation the following factors will have to be considered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Purchase price – may include all charges, such as duty and installations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Estimated salvage value - This represents how much can be recovered when this item is disposed of.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Estimated useful life – This may be expressed in hours or years.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three methods of deprecation of construction equipment. They are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Straight line depreciation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Double decline balance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Sum of years digits</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the first method of depreciation, it is considered that wear, deterioration, and obsolescence of equipment are directly proportional to elapsed time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The second and third methods are considered to be accelerated methods where larger amounts of depreciation are recorded during the early years, than in the later years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Interest, insurance, taxes, and duty</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The item of equipment may have been purchased on a loan or leased from a bank or leasing company. Then, it is necessary to consider the interest of a loan or lease. This amount can be calculated annually. That amount can be divided by the annual estimated hours of use to find out the estimated rate per hour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance premiums can also be distributed over the estimated annual use of equipment hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2113,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-28.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2113\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The usage of construction plants and equipment will be the main factor that causes the expiration of assets. In this case, depreciation can be based on physical output.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The depreciation charge per unit of output may be found using the formula given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2114,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-29.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2114\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this, the periodic depreciation is found by multiplying the rate per unit by the actual number of units produced during the same period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Operating costs</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These costs are proportional to the time that equipment is used for work. These costs can be categorized in to the following areas;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Fuel</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Lubricants and grease</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Filters</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Tyres</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Repairs</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Special items</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Operator wages</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Fuel</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The estimated hourly cost of fuel can be found by multiplying the estimated fuel consumption by the unit cost of fuel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Estimated cost of fuel per hour&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; fuel consumption per hour </em>X<em> unit rate</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The hourly consumption of fuel can be calculated by data maintained by the equipment owner or by using the manufacturer’s data. However, construction equipment does not work under full load conditions continuously. Therefore, a load factor should be used to correct the consumption of fuel at load.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Consumption of fuel under job condition =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; consumption of fuel </em>X<em> load factor fuel under full load</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the reliable method of calculating the fuel consumption is by direct observation under site conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Lubricants and Grease</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The requirement for lubricating oil and grease will vary with the type of equipment. During the early days, only engine oil, gear oil, and grease were used in construction equipment. Today, most of the construction equipment uses hydraulic systems. Therefore, the need has arisen to estimate the requirement of hydraulic oil in addition to the above-mentioned lubricants.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Approximately, this could be taken as 10% of the cost of fuel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Filters</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The filter costs may be calculated using the formula given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2115,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-30.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2115\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Tyres</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The replacement cost of tyres accounts for a reasonable percentage of the purchase price of wheeled equipment. Therefore, the hourly tyre costs are estimated separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2116,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-31.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2116\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tyre life will depend upon factors like surface conditions, operating speeds, the position of the wheel – driving or trailing, loaded, curves on haul roads, grades on haul roads, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Repairs</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Repairs represent a considerable amount of the operating cost of equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The repair costs are low during the initial period and rise gradually towards the end period of estimated life. If one is to consider the repair cost properly it will be an increasing item increasing along with life. To avoid that this can be averaged from the first hour of use of equipment till the last hour of estimated use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>So, if records are maintained concerning repairs, one could see that during the initial period, money is being lifted out of the estimated repair cost. It is sometimes called a repair reserve also.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, the cost of repairs is again estimated using factors that will vary with the job conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The estimated repair cost will be equal to;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>Estimated hourly repair cost&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Repair factor </em>X <em>Hourly depreciation cost</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Special items</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction equipment may be fitted with various special items used for digging, scraping works, etc. The following list gives types of special items that could be fitted onto construction equipment by machine type.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2118,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-33.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2118\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>         </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of special items per hour can be calculated using the following formula.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2117,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-32.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2117\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Operator wages</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The operator’s wages also can be taken into consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Administration cost</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These are also called overhead expenditures, such as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Establishment costs of the organization,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Recurrent expenditure of organization,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Wages, telephone, electricity, water, etc. </li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'ESTIMATING THE OWNING AND OPERATING COSTS OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'estimating-the-owning-and-operating-costs-of-construction-equipment', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:35:55', '2024-06-26 14:05:55', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2111', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(2120, 1, '2024-06-26 19:35:53', '2024-06-26 14:05:53', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction projects tend to use more and more mechanical construction methods to keep up with the present trend of mechanization of industries in the world.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of construction equipment could be up to around 40% of the total cost of a project. A contractor may use general and specialized types of equipment to complete a construction task within the stipulated time and maintain quality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the prime factors one should have in mind is to keep the estimated construction costs as low as possible. That will ultimately contribute to the profit of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To calculate the unit costs of various construction tasks, it is necessary to estimate the costs of using construction equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, a contractor may hire or lease construction equipment to execute the work. The organization or individual, who hires or leases equipment will have to estimate the owning and operating costs to establish the hire rate for the plant.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is necessary to understand how owning and operating costs are estimated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the construction industry, the productivity of construction equipment is expressed on an hourly or daily basis. Therefore, the owning and operating costs of construction equipment are also estimated on an hourly or daily basis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Elements of owning and operating costs of equipment</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2112,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-27.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2112\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Owning Costs</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These costs are also called fixed costs as these have to be incurred even when the equipment is not being operated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The owning costs comprise the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Hourly Depreciation Costs</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Interests on borrowings</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Insurance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Custom duty, taxes, road taxes, etc.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Depreciation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation in accounting is an estimate expressed in terms of costs, of the amount of service potential of a depreciable asset that expires in a given period. The depreciation may be caused due to physical deterioration or obsolescence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Physical deterioration results from use, wear and tear, etc. Even if a good maintenance and repair practice is in effect, equipment will have to be eventually discarded.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Obsolescence refers to when equipment becomes out of date or obsolete. An item of equipment may exist in sound physical condition, but it may be outdated as more efficient, economical, and higher-quality machines have become available.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation distributes <strong>systematically and rationally</strong> the cost of depreciable equipment less salvage value over the useful life of the equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As said in the earlier statement to estimate periodic depreciation the following factors will have to be considered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Purchase price – may include all charges, such as duty and installations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Estimated salvage value - This represents how much can be recovered when this item is disposed of.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Estimated useful life – This may be expressed in hours or years.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three methods of deprecation of construction equipment. They are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Straight line depreciation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Double decline balance</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Sum of years digits</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the first method of depreciation, it is considered that wear, deterioration, and obsolescence of equipment are directly proportional to elapsed time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The second and third methods are considered to be accelerated methods where larger amounts of depreciation are recorded during the early years, than in the later years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Interest, insurance, taxes, and duty</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The item of equipment may have been purchased on a loan or leased from a bank or leasing company. Then, it is necessary to consider the interest of a loan or lease. This amount can be calculated annually. That amount can be divided by the annual estimated hours of use to find out the estimated rate per hour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insurance premiums can also be distributed over the estimated annual use of equipment hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2113,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-28.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2113\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The usage of construction plants and equipment will be the main factor that causes the expiration of assets. In this case, depreciation can be based on physical output.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The depreciation charge per unit of output may be found using the formula given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2114,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-29.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2114\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this, the periodic depreciation is found by multiplying the rate per unit by the actual number of units produced during the same period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Operating costs</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These costs are proportional to the time that equipment is used for work. These costs can be categorized in to the following areas;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Fuel</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Lubricants and grease</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Filters</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Tyres</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Repairs</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Special items</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Operator wages</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Fuel</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The estimated hourly cost of fuel can be found by multiplying the estimated fuel consumption by the unit cost of fuel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Estimated cost of fuel per hour&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; fuel consumption per hour </em>X<em> unit rate</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The hourly consumption of fuel can be calculated by data maintained by the equipment owner or by using the manufacturer’s data. However, construction equipment does not work under full load conditions continuously. Therefore, a load factor should be used to correct the consumption of fuel at load.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Consumption of fuel under job condition =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; consumption of fuel </em>X<em> load factor fuel under full load</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the reliable method of calculating the fuel consumption is by direct observation under site conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Lubricants and Grease</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The requirement for lubricating oil and grease will vary with the type of equipment. During the early days, only engine oil, gear oil, and grease were used in construction equipment. Today, most of the construction equipment uses hydraulic systems. Therefore, the need has arisen to estimate the requirement of hydraulic oil in addition to the above-mentioned lubricants.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Approximately, this could be taken as 10% of the cost of fuel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Filters</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The filter costs may be calculated using the formula given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2115,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-30.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2115\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Tyres</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The replacement cost of tyres accounts for a reasonable percentage of the purchase price of wheeled equipment. Therefore, the hourly tyre costs are estimated separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2116,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-31.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2116\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tyre life will depend upon factors like surface conditions, operating speeds, the position of the wheel – driving or trailing, loaded, curves on haul roads, grades on haul roads, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Repairs</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Repairs represent a considerable amount of the operating cost of equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The repair costs are low during the initial period and rise gradually towards the end period of estimated life. If one is to consider the repair cost properly it will be an increasing item increasing along with life. To avoid that this can be averaged from the first hour of use of equipment till the last hour of estimated use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>So, if records are maintained concerning repairs, one could see that during the initial period, money is being lifted out of the estimated repair cost. It is sometimes called a repair reserve also.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, the cost of repairs is again estimated using factors that will vary with the job conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The estimated repair cost will be equal to;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>Estimated hourly repair cost&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Repair factor </em>X <em>Hourly depreciation cost</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Special items</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction equipment may be fitted with various special items used for digging, scraping works, etc. The following list gives types of special items that could be fitted onto construction equipment by machine type.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2118,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-33.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2118\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>         </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of special items per hour can be calculated using the following formula.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2117,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-32.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2117\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Operator wages</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The operator’s wages also can be taken into consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Administration cost</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These are also called overhead expenditures, such as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Establishment costs of the organization,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Recurrent expenditure of organization,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Wages, telephone, electricity, water, etc. </li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'ESTIMATING THE OWNING AND OPERATING COSTS OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2111-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:35:53', '2024-06-26 14:05:53', '', 2111, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2120', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2288, 1, '2024-07-31 00:41:26', '2024-07-30 19:11:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Corrosion</strong> of reinforcing steel in concrete structures is a pressing issue. While high-quality concrete typically provides robust protection against <strong>corrosion</strong>, various structures like bridges, parking garages, and marine installations are frequently afflicted by the damaging effects of corroded reinforcement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Corrosion</strong> is exacerbated by variations in chloride content, moisture, or oxygen along a reinforcing bar or between different bars. These disparities can generate voltage differentials that significantly accelerate the <strong>corrosion</strong> rate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The expansion from <strong>corroded</strong> reinforcements imposes additional volume on the surrounding concrete, often leading to spalling. This effect can notably diminish the cross-sectional area of the rebar, compromising the structure\'s ability to safely support its intended loads.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mechanisms of Corrosion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Corrosion</strong> occurs as metals revert to their natural states, often as oxides or hydroxides. Metals in their refined, metallic state are at a higher energy level, and <strong>corrosion</strong> is a natural process that lowers this energy. Despite this inherent tendency, an inert film of tightly adhering <strong>corrosion</strong> products usually forms in alkaline environments like concrete, protecting the steel beneath from further <strong>corrosive</strong> attack. However, chloride ions can penetrate this passive film through a process called pitting, initiating <strong>corrosion</strong> in concrete-laden reinforcements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Corrosion</strong> is fundamentally an electrochemical process, involving the transfer or displacement of electrons. It becomes more prevalent when there are distinct anodes and cathodes at measurable distances, allowing electrical currents to flow across the metal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Even in concrete exposed merely to air and rain, <strong>corrosion</strong> can occur. This atmospheric <strong>corrosion</strong> does not necessarily require a substantial electrolyte. A thin film of rainwater can suffice, carrying ions and completing the electrical circuit. Anodes and cathodes in this scenario may reside within the same steel bar, separated only by minimal distances.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preventing Corrosion in Reinforcing Steel</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>High-quality concrete with a minimum cover of 50 mm can effectively protect embedded steel from <strong>corrosion</strong>. However, the risk of steel <strong>corrosion</strong> increases if the quality or depth of the cover is inadequate. <strong>Corrosion</strong> is likely under the following conditions:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The concrete cover undergoes carbonation, reducing the pH from roughly 13 to about 9.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Chloride ions penetrate the concrete, with the concrete adjacent to the steel containing at least 0.77 kg of chloride ions per cubic meter.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If <strong>corrosion</strong> occurs due to insufficient cover and carbonated concrete, it tends to progress relatively slowly. In contrast, <strong>corrosion</strong> initiated by chloride ions usually advances more rapidly than atmospheric <strong>corrosion</strong>, leading to extensive damage. This process involves voltage differentials, electron transfer, and electrical current flow, coupled with chemical reactions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Damages Induced by Corrosion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Corrosion</strong> causes significant damage to concrete, manifesting as cracking, delamination, and spalling. Atmospheric <strong>corrosion</strong>, linked to the carbonation of concrete cover, is relatively slow to develop and may not always lead to serious deterioration, depending on the environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conversely, chloride-induced <strong>corrosion</strong> is notably more destructive. It can occur even in high-quality concrete, provided there is a sufficient supply of water (approximately 75% humidity), the threshold level of chloride ions at the anode, and adequate oxygen at the cathode. The resulting voltages push the <strong>corrosion</strong> to progress rapidly, causing noticeable cracking, delamination, and spalling of the concrete cover.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The underlying cause of this deterioration is the increased solid volume of the <strong>corrosion</strong> products compared to the original metal. In the case of iron, the reaction of the metal with gases, liquids, or dissolved solids creates this volume increase. Corroded steel generates various products—commonly known as rust—dependent on the available oxygen, chloride, and water. These products often include amorphous ferrous (Fe++), ferric (Fe+++), oxides, hydroxides, chlorides, hydrates, and complexes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In conclusion, understanding the mechanisms and effects of <strong>corrosion</strong> on reinforcing steel is essential for maintaining the integrity and longevity of concrete structures. Effective preventive measures and regular monitoring are crucial to mitigating the damaging impacts of <strong>corrosion</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel: A Critical Insight', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2286-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-31 00:41:26', '2024-07-30 19:11:26', '', 2286, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2288', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2291, 1, '2024-07-31 00:57:28', '2024-07-30 19:27:28', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bleeding water, or \" bleed water,\" is the clear water that appears on the top surface of freshly placed concrete, mortar, grout, or paste after placement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What Causes Bleed Water?</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bleed water occurs due to the settlement of solid particles, such as cement and aggregates, within the wet concrete. This sedimentation leads to the upward movement of water, resulting in the phenomenon known as bleeding or water gain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Normal vs. Excessive Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A moderate amount of bleed water is typical and does not negatively affect the quality of plastic or hardened concrete. However, excessive bleed water can adversely impact concrete performance, creating challenges during construction and in the final product.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Controlling Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper mix proportioning, appropriate ingredient selection, correct placement equipment, and sound construction practices can effectively control bleeding to a desirable level.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Basics of Bleeding Water in Concrete</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Freshly mixed concrete is a combination of suspended concrete constituents. Once agitation stops, solid materials settle, and any excess water rises to the surface, forming bleed water. Although the volume of materials remains unchanged, the height of the hardened concrete is reduced due to evaporation of the surface water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Types of Bleed Water Accumulation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Normal Bleeding</strong>: Uniform seepage of water over the entire concrete surface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Channel Bleeding</strong>: Water rising through localized channels, possibly carrying fine particles, especially in mixes with low cement or high water content.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Bleeding Rate and Capacity</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bleeding Rate</strong>: The speed at which bleed water rises to the surface, influenced by the permeability of the concrete paste. Expressed in cubic centimeters of water per second per square centimeter of surface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bleeding Capacity</strong>: The amount of bleed water a concrete mix can discharge, related to the depth of settlement. Expressed as a ratio or percentage of total decrease in height relative to the initial height, or as a percentage of mixing water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Duration of Bleeding</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bleeding duration depends on the depth of the concrete section and the setting properties of cementitious materials. Thinner slabs bleed faster than deeper sections. Concrete that sets quickly will expel less bleed water compared to slower-setting concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Increasing and Reducing Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Increasing Bleeding Water</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To increase bleeding water for purposes such as preventing plastic shrinkage cracking or improving surface finishing in dry weather, consider:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding more water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Reducing sand fines.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Decreasing cementitious materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Reducing Bleeding Water</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To reduce bleeding water, which may be necessary for various reasons such as improving finishing operations and minimizing weak concrete formation, consider these strategies:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Lowering water content, water-cement ratio, and slump.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Increasing cement content to reduce the water-cement ratio.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Utilizing finer cementitious materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding more fines to the sand.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Incorporating additional cementing materials like fly ash, slag, or silica fume.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Using blended hydraulic cement.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding chemical admixtures to reduce the water-cement ratio.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Employing air-entrained concrete.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing bleed water effectively is crucial for ensuring quality concrete. By understanding the causes and measures for controlling bleeding water, concrete performance can be optimized, leading to more durable and robust structures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bleeding Water in Concrete: Understanding and Managing Bleed Water', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'bleeding-water-in-concrete-understanding-and-managing-bleed-water', '', '', '2024-07-31 00:57:30', '2024-07-30 19:27:30', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2291', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2293, 1, '2024-07-31 00:57:28', '2024-07-30 19:27:28', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bleeding water, or \" bleed water,\" is the clear water that appears on the top surface of freshly placed concrete, mortar, grout, or paste after placement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What Causes Bleed Water?</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bleed water occurs due to the settlement of solid particles, such as cement and aggregates, within the wet concrete. This sedimentation leads to the upward movement of water, resulting in the phenomenon known as bleeding or water gain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Normal vs. Excessive Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A moderate amount of bleed water is typical and does not negatively affect the quality of plastic or hardened concrete. However, excessive bleed water can adversely impact concrete performance, creating challenges during construction and in the final product.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Controlling Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper mix proportioning, appropriate ingredient selection, correct placement equipment, and sound construction practices can effectively control bleeding to a desirable level.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Basics of Bleeding Water in Concrete</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Freshly mixed concrete is a combination of suspended concrete constituents. Once agitation stops, solid materials settle, and any excess water rises to the surface, forming bleed water. Although the volume of materials remains unchanged, the height of the hardened concrete is reduced due to evaporation of the surface water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Types of Bleed Water Accumulation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Normal Bleeding</strong>: Uniform seepage of water over the entire concrete surface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Channel Bleeding</strong>: Water rising through localized channels, possibly carrying fine particles, especially in mixes with low cement or high water content.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Bleeding Rate and Capacity</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bleeding Rate</strong>: The speed at which bleed water rises to the surface, influenced by the permeability of the concrete paste. Expressed in cubic centimeters of water per second per square centimeter of surface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bleeding Capacity</strong>: The amount of bleed water a concrete mix can discharge, related to the depth of settlement. Expressed as a ratio or percentage of total decrease in height relative to the initial height, or as a percentage of mixing water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Duration of Bleeding</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bleeding duration depends on the depth of the concrete section and the setting properties of cementitious materials. Thinner slabs bleed faster than deeper sections. Concrete that sets quickly will expel less bleed water compared to slower-setting concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Increasing and Reducing Bleeding Water</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Increasing Bleeding Water</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To increase bleeding water for purposes such as preventing plastic shrinkage cracking or improving surface finishing in dry weather, consider:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding more water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Reducing sand fines.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Decreasing cementitious materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Reducing Bleeding Water</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To reduce bleeding water, which may be necessary for various reasons such as improving finishing operations and minimizing weak concrete formation, consider these strategies:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Lowering water content, water-cement ratio, and slump.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Increasing cement content to reduce the water-cement ratio.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Utilizing finer cementitious materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding more fines to the sand.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Incorporating additional cementing materials like fly ash, slag, or silica fume.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Using blended hydraulic cement.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adding chemical admixtures to reduce the water-cement ratio.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Employing air-entrained concrete.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing bleed water effectively is crucial for ensuring quality concrete. By understanding the causes and measures for controlling bleeding water, concrete performance can be optimized, leading to more durable and robust structures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bleeding Water in Concrete: Understanding and Managing Bleed Water', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2291-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-31 00:57:28', '2024-07-30 19:27:28', '', 2291, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2293', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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