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(1879, 1, '2023-03-07 00:41:24', '2023-03-06 19:11:24', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. The architect normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 00:41:24', '2023-03-06 19:11:24', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1879', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1900, 1, '2023-05-08 23:56:05', '2023-05-08 18:26:05', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cement and aggregates are the main ingredients in making concrete. Water is the third.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity of water in the concrete mix strongly influences the strength of the resulting concrete. Undoubtedly, water is necessary to make the concrete mix adequately workable. There is another important thing. Water is necessary to hydrate the cement in the concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>But, in this document, we discuss the quality of water necessary for making concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water is not just a liquid used to make concrete. It is involved in the whole life of the concrete. Several actions on concrete in service, other than loading, involve water. The important influences of water, in addition to those on workability and strength, are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>setting, hydration, bleeding, drying shrinkage, creep, ingress of salts, explosive failure of concrete with a very low water-cement ratio, staining of the surface, chemical attack of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement, freezing and thawing, carbonation, alkali-silica reaction, thermal properties, electrical resistivity, cavitation and erosion, and quality of drinking water passed through concrete pipes or mortar-lined pipes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing and curing purposes should be considered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A clear distinction must be made between the quality of mixing water and the attack on hardened concrete by aggressive waters. Some water that badly affects hardened concrete may be harmless or even beneficial when used in mixing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic substances or inorganic constituents in excessive proportions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many textbooks, the quality of water for mixing concrete is simply mentioned as it should be fit for drinking. Such water not often contains dissolved inorganic solids above 2000 parts per million (ppm). Most probably, it is less than 1000 ppm. For a water/cement ratio of 0.5, the latter content tallies to a quantity of solids representing 0.05 percent of the mass of cement. Therefore, any effect due to these solids would be small.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, there are a few exceptions when using potable water as mixing water. For instance, in some dry areas, local drinking water is saline. It may contain an excessive amount of chlorides. Also, some natural mineral waters contain undesirable amounts of alkali carbonates and bicarbonates which could contribute to the alkali-silica reaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, some water not fit for drinking may be used in making concrete. As a rule, water with pH of 6.0 to 8.0, which does not taste brackish, is suitable for use. Similarly, dark colour or bad smell does not necessarily mean that deleterious substances are present.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple way of determining the suitability of such water is to compare the setting time of cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the results obtained using known good water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is harmful to introduce large quantities of clay and silt into the concrete. Therefore, mixing water with a high content of suspended solids should be allowed to stand in a settling basin before use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Natural waters that are slightly acidic are harmless. However, water containing humic – <em>resulting from the decomposition of plant and other animal residues</em> - or other organic acids may adversely affect the hardening of concrete. Such water, as well as highly alkaline water, should be tested before use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The presence of algae in mixing water results in air entrainment with a resulting loss of strength. Brackish water contains chlorides and sulfates. When chloride does not exceed 500 ppm, or SO<sub>3</sub> does not exceed 1000 ppm, the water is harmless.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sea water has a total salinity of about 3.5 percent. 78 percent of the dissolved solids are NaCl and 15 percent are MgCl<sub>2</sub> and MgSO<sub>4.</sub> It produces a marginally higher early strength but a lower long-term strength. The loss of strength is usually no more than 15 percent which can often be tolerated. Some tests suggest that seawater slightly accelerates the setting time of cement. Others show a substantial reduction in the initial setting time but not necessarily in the final set. Generally, the effects on setting time are unimportant if water is acceptable from strength considerations. According to BS EN 1008-2002, the tolerances may be 25 minutes in the initial setting time and a maximum final setting time of 12 hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water containing large quantities of chlorides (e.g. seawater) may cause dampness and surface efflorescence. Such water should, therefore, not be used where the appearance of unreinforced concrete is of importance, or where a plaster finish is to be applied. Also, the presence of chlorides in concrete containing embedded steel can lead to its corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to remember that water discharged into the mixer is not the only source of mix water. Aggregates also contain surface moisture. This water may represent a considerable proportion of the total mixing water. Therefore, it is, important that the water brought in by the aggregate is also free from harmful material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is a possible effect of cement on the interior surface of a pipe on water intended for human consumption. As long as water moves through a concrete pipe (or a mortar-lined conduit) at speed, no significant chemical reaction with cement occurs. However, when water is near-stagnant, for example during the night in domestic water conduits, leaching of cement may occur. This may raise the pH of the water and increase the content of CaCO<sub>3. </sub>It is referred to as carbonate alkalinity or water hardness. The increase in CaCO<sub>3</sub> is induced by carbon dioxide dissolved in the water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curing water should generally satisfy the requirements for mixing water. However, it should be free from substances that attack hardened concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, flowing pure water dissolves Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub> and causes surface erosion of concrete. Curing very young concrete with seawater may lead to an attack on reinforcement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Quality of mixing water for Concrete', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'quality-of-mixing-water-for-concrete', '', '', '2023-05-08 23:56:06', '2023-05-08 18:26:06', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1900', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1901, 1, '2023-05-08 23:55:42', '2023-05-08 18:25:42', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cement and aggregates are the main ingredients in making concrete. Water is the third.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity of water in the concrete mix strongly influences the strength of the resulting concrete. Undoubtedly, water is necessary to make the concrete mix adequately workable. There is another important thing. Water is necessary to hydrate the cement in the concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>But, in this document, we discuss the quality of water necessary for making concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water is not just a liquid used to make concrete. It is involved in the whole life of the concrete. Several actions on concrete in service, other than loading, involve water. The important influences of water, in addition to those on workability and strength, are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>setting, hydration, bleeding, drying shrinkage, creep, ingress of salts, explosive failure of concrete with a very low water-cement ratio, staining of the surface, chemical attack of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement, freezing and thawing, carbonation, alkali-silica reaction, thermal properties, electrical resistivity, cavitation and erosion, and quality of drinking water passed through concrete pipes or mortar-lined pipes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing and curing purposes should be considered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A clear distinction must be made between the quality of mixing water and the attack on hardened concrete by aggressive waters. Some water that badly affects hardened concrete may be harmless or even beneficial when used in mixing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic substances or inorganic constituents in excessive proportions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many textbooks, the quality of water for mixing concrete is simply mentioned as it should be fit for drinking. Such water not often contains dissolved inorganic solids above 2000 parts per million (ppm). Most probably, it is less than 1000 ppm. For a water/cement ratio of 0.5, the latter content tallies to a quantity of solids representing 0.05 percent of the mass of cement. Therefore, any effect due to these solids would be small.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, there are a few exceptions when using potable water as mixing water. For instance, in some dry areas, local drinking water is saline. It may contain an excessive amount of chlorides. Also, some natural mineral waters contain undesirable amounts of alkali carbonates and bicarbonates which could contribute to the alkali-silica reaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, some water not fit for drinking may be used in making concrete. As a rule, water with pH of 6.0 to 8.0, which does not taste brackish, is suitable for use. Similarly, dark colour or bad smell does not necessarily mean that deleterious substances are present.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple way of determining the suitability of such water is to compare the setting time of cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the results obtained using known good water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is harmful to introduce large quantities of clay and silt into the concrete. Therefore, mixing water with a high content of suspended solids should be allowed to stand in a settling basin before use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Natural waters that are slightly acidic are harmless. However, water containing humic – <em>resulting from the decomposition of plant and other animal residues</em> - or other organic acids may adversely affect the hardening of concrete. Such water, as well as highly alkaline water, should be tested before use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The presence of algae in mixing water results in air entrainment with a resulting loss of strength. Brackish water contains chlorides and sulfates. When chloride does not exceed 500 ppm, or SO<sub>3</sub> does not exceed 1000 ppm, the water is harmless.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sea water has a total salinity of about 3.5 percent. 78 percent of the dissolved solids are NaCl and 15 percent are MgCl<sub>2</sub> and MgSO<sub>4.</sub> It produces a marginally higher early strength but a lower long-term strength. The loss of strength is usually no more than 15 percent which can often be tolerated. Some tests suggest that seawater slightly accelerates the setting time of cement. Others show a substantial reduction in the initial setting time but not necessarily in the final set. Generally, the effects on setting time are unimportant if water is acceptable from strength considerations. According to BS EN 1008-2002, the tolerances may be 25 minutes in the initial setting time and a maximum final setting time of 12 hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water containing large quantities of chlorides (e.g. seawater) may cause dampness and surface efflorescence. Such water should, therefore, not be used where the appearance of unreinforced concrete is of importance, or where a plaster finish is to be applied. Also, the presence of chlorides in concrete containing embedded steel can lead to its corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to remember that water discharged into the mixer is not the only source of mix water. Aggregates also contain surface moisture. This water may represent a considerable proportion of the total mixing water. Therefore, it is, important that the water brought in by the aggregate is also free from harmful material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is a possible effect of cement on the interior surface of a pipe on water intended for human consumption. As long as water moves through a concrete pipe (or a mortar-lined conduit) at speed, no significant chemical reaction with cement occurs. However, when water is near-stagnant, for example during the night in domestic water conduits, leaching of cement may occur. This may raise the pH of the water and increase the content of CaCO<sub>3. </sub>It is referred to as carbonate alkalinity or water hardness. The increase in CaCO<sub>3</sub> is induced by carbon dioxide dissolved in the water.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curing water should generally satisfy the requirements for mixing water. However, it should be free from substances that attack hardened concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, flowing pure water dissolves Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub> and causes surface erosion of concrete. Curing very young concrete with seawater may lead to an attack on reinforcement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Quality of mixing water for Concrete', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1900-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-08 23:55:42', '2023-05-08 18:25:42', '', 1900, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1901', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2232, 1, '2024-07-21 23:33:13', '2024-07-21 18:03:13', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2232', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:33:13', '2024-07-21 18:03:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2232/', 98, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2233, 1, '2024-07-21 23:48:00', '2024-07-21 18:18:00', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When <strong>a breach of contract</strong> occurs, the injured party has several potential remedies available. However, any action must be brought within the limitation period. The primary remedies for <strong>breach of contract</strong> include damages, specific performance, and injunctions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Damages</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Damages are the most common judicial remedy for <strong>breach of contract</strong>. According to common law, the victim of a <strong>breach of contract</strong> is entitled to receive a sum of money as compensation for the harm suffered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The Purpose of Damages in Contract Law</strong>:<br>Damages are intended to compensate the claimant by putting them in the position they would have been in if the contract had been performed as agreed. As explained in Robinson v Harman [1848], the purpose is to place the victim in the same position as if no <strong>contract breach</strong> had occurred.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Equitable Remedies</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Equitable remedies come into play when monetary damages are inadequate to address the harm caused by a <strong>breach of contract</strong>. These remedies include specific performance and injunctions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Situations where Equitable Remedies May Apply</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The subject matter of the contract is unique.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Damages are difficult to assess.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The defendant is unable to pay damages.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Damages to a party’s trade are at stake.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contract involves an error or misrepresentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The written contract does not reflect the actual agreement.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Equitable remedies are discretionary and are used when traditional damages cannot adequately resolve the harm caused by the <strong>breach of contract</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Specific Performance</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Specific performance is a remedy where the court orders the breaching party to fulfill their obligations as per the contract. This remedy is suitable in scenarios where the subject matter is unique, such as real estate or rare items.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Key Conditions for Granting Specific Performance</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Not available if damages are an adequate remedy.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Suitable if the contract subject matter is unique.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Enforceable by the court.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Not applicable for prolonged or complex oversight, particularly in personal service contracts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Must be sought promptly without undue delay.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not cause undue hardship to the breaching party.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The claimant must be ready to fulfill their own contractual obligations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Must ensure mutuality of the obligation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The claimant’s request must be equitable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Injunctions</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Injunctions can be either mandatory (requiring a party to take a specific action) or prohibitory (preventing a party from doing something). Injunctions are often used to maintain the status quo pending the resolution of the main issue.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Types of Injunctions</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Mandatory Injunctions</strong>: Order the party to perform a specific act, though they are rarely granted due to enforcement difficulties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Prohibitory Injunctions</strong>: Prevent a party from breaching a legal or equitable right.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Perpetual vs. Interim Injunctions</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Perpetual Injunctions</strong>: Provide final relief and are granted when damages are inadequate.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interim Injunctions</strong>: Granted to prevent irreparable harm while the main issue is being resolved.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Common Scenarios for Injunctions in Contract Law</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Enforcing a restraint on trade.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preventing a breach of confidence.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encouraging the performance of personal service contracts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Understanding and navigating remedies for <strong>a breach of contract</strong> involves assessing the most suitable form of relief — whether it be monetary damages, specific performance, or injunctions — to address the harm caused by the breach effectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Law of Contract – Remedies for Breach of Contract', 'Discover the key remedies available for breach of contract, including damages, specific performance, and injunctions. Learn how each remedy works and when they are applicable in cases of contract breaches', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'law-of-contract-remedies-for-breach-of-contract', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:48:02', '2024-07-21 18:18:02', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2233', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1904, 1, '2023-05-09 00:03:06', '2023-05-08 18:33:06', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration is a term used to describe the functions that are performed after the contracting parties have signed the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a precise term, contract administration refers to those activities that take place after contract award and can include a plethora of activities ranging from routine to unusual.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It requires the contract manager to remain focused on the program goals and objectives. Good contract administration fails when program goals and objectives are not met.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration includes the development of a contract administration plan, performance monitoring, contract closeout, and analysis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration activities include payment, monitoring of progress, inspection and acceptance, quality assurance, monitoring and surveillance, modification, negotiation, contract closeout, and many others.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Purpose of contract administration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration focus on the achievement of stated goals and objectives that fall within the framework of the negotiated contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration protects the rights of the parties and ensures that the obligations of the parties are met.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the public sector perspective, contract administration is concerned with the wise expenditure of public funds and the design and application of a decision-making process, which results in outcomes that are in the best interests of the citizens it serves.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Strategic Contribution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract administration requires the effective and efficient management of executed contract agreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contracts are created to meet the validated requirements of public organizations. So each contract makes some contribution to the operational effectiveness of any organization. Contractual arrangements are mission-oriented so contribute to the success of the mission of the organization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Typical Contract Administration Problems</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Wrong or unsatisfactory product is delivered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Delay in delivery or completion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Dispute over the definition of acceptance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Change orders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Personality conflicts between the contractor and the agency representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Limited or no replacement sources of supply.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Poor performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. High risk of failure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. Use of subcontracts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. High costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To effectively manage a contract, the procurement department should anticipate which of these contract administration problems will most likely be encountered and then develop specifications, contract clauses, and a contract-monitoring plan to avoid or manage the problems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Benefits of Good Contract Administration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. <strong>Effective Control</strong> - ensuring that both parties know their obligations and implementing a contract control system that reflects the performance requirements of the contract and provides mechanisms for the coordination and dissemination of information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. <strong>Performance to the required standard</strong> - Full use should be made of a contractor’s own management information and performance measurement system, with the contractor reporting progress through the agreed procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. <strong>Compliance with contract conditions</strong> - Managing the contract conditions will help to ensure that they are met; if they are not met, they provide remedies to be applied properly and promptly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. <strong>Clear and documented records</strong> – These are essential in the event of invoking default procedures or seeking correction of failures to perform.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. <strong>Management of change</strong> - It is the contract administrator’s responsibility to define appropriate change control procedures which enable him/her to anticipate, manage and control changes to requirements and/or costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Contract Administration', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'contract-administration', '', '', '2023-05-09 00:03:07', '2023-05-08 18:33:07', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1904', 0, 'post', '', 2),
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(1885, 1, '2023-03-07 08:59:26', '2023-03-07 03:29:26', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. The architect normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 08:59:26', '2023-03-07 03:29:26', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1885', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1889, 1, '2023-03-07 09:02:21', '2023-03-07 03:32:21', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs.  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 09:02:21', '2023-03-07 03:32:21', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1889', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1886, 1, '2023-03-07 08:59:38', '2023-03-07 03:29:38', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. The architect normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 08:59:38', '2023-03-07 03:29:38', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1886', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1887, 1, '2023-03-07 09:01:47', '2023-03-07 03:31:47', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 09:01:47', '2023-03-07 03:31:47', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1887', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1890, 1, '2023-03-07 09:03:54', '2023-03-07 03:33:54', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs.  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works. Therefore, clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 09:03:54', '2023-03-07 03:33:54', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1890', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1891, 1, '2023-03-07 09:04:20', '2023-03-07 03:34:20', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs.  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect but has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site. He is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works. Therefore, clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 09:04:20', '2023-03-07 03:34:20', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1891', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1892, 1, '2023-03-07 09:05:36', '2023-03-07 03:35:36', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs.  </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. In some cases, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect. But he has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site. He is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works. Therefore, clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-07 09:05:36', '2023-03-07 03:35:36', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1892', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1908, 1, '2023-05-09 00:05:33', '2023-05-08 18:35:33', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bidders in the construction business know it is very difficult to decide on a suitable margin to make the bid competitively against other bidders. The markup percentage must be low enough to win the bid and at the same time, high enough to make a reasonable profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, bidders have a common method of assessing a specific contract markup. That is adding a single percentage markup to the total of direct and indirect costs. It is assumed that this percentage will cover all the components of markup, such as risk allowances, financial charges, and profit. It includes a detailed analysis of the risky components in the project and their impact in terms of increased time and cost. In the meantime, a cash flow analysis must be done to estimate the financial charges before estimating a reasonable profit margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The direct costs are associated directly with the contract activities. However, indirect cost and markup are not associated with specific activities but with the whole contract. Therefore, the pricing policy is the method of how the indirect costs and markup be distributed among the work items of the bill of quantities, and to calculate the total bid price before submitting the bid to the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Balanced bid</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most of the bidders follow this method when calculating the bid price. In this method, the indirect cost and the markup will be distributed among different work items based on their direct cost value. That means, if the direct cost of an item is higher, the share from indirect cost and markup for the particular item is more. The resulting bid price arrived using this method is called a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1479,\"width\":583,\"height\":51,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1479\" width=\"583\" height=\"51\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Assume that the direct cost for an item (a) is LKR 400,000 and that item is included in a contract whose price is LKR 3,500,000 and its total direct cost is LKR 2,800,000. Calculate the price for the item (a) considering a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution - &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1480,\"width\":433,\"height\":209,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1480\" width=\"433\" height=\"209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1481,\"width\":467,\"height\":69,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1481\" width=\"467\" height=\"69\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong><em>Unbalanced bid (Loading of Rates)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bid price is unbalanced if the bidder raises the unit rates on certain bid items (usually the early items on the work programme) and reduces the unit rates on remaining work items so that the bid price remains the same. This process is also called the loading of rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The reason for loading the unit rates of the first items is to ensure more cash flow at the beginning of the contract and to reduce the negative cash flow, thereby reducing borrowing of money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method of loading rates may be risky to both the contractor and the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, when the contractor raised the price for a work item, and then the quantity of this item increased during the construction than what was in the bill of quantities then, the resulting situation is riskier to the client. It will cost the client more money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, if the contractor reduced the price of a specific work item in the bill of quantity and the quantity of that item increased during the construction, the situation is riskier for the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is better to follow a balanced way of distributing the indirect costs and markup among work items in the bill of quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Consider a contract having five consecutive activities with equal duration. The quantity of work in each activity, the direct cost rate, and the total cost rate for balanced and unbalanced bids are given in the Table below. Determine the influence of unbalanced bid on the contractor’s profit if:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1). Quantity of activity (B) is increased by 50%. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2). Quantity of activity (C) is increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1482,\"width\":716,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1482\" width=\"716\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution - &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </em></strong><em>Here, it seems that the bidder has increased the unit rates of early items (i.e. in Activities A and B) in the unbalanced bid. However, to get the bid price on par with a balanced bid, the bidder has reduced the unit rates of remaining activities.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1483,\"width\":568,\"height\":85,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1483\" width=\"568\" height=\"85\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “B” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1484,\"width\":720,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1484\" width=\"720\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,200.00) is greater than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,000.00) which means more profit to the contractor and more risk to the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The next Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “C” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1485,\"width\":716,\"height\":179,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1485\" width=\"716\" height=\"179\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,400.00) is less than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,500.00) which means less profit and more risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decrease in bid price means the profit of the contractor has been decreased representing a risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>From National Procurement Agency (NPA) Guideline in Sri Lanka</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Examination of unbalanced bids (lowest evaluated bid) during bid evaluation to minimize the risk</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A bid may appear unbalanced resulting from the comparison of unit prices quoted by different bidders and the engineer’s estimate previously prepared by the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For Works contracts may be “unbalanced” in several ways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unit prices for work items that will be performed early during the construction can be priced high. Or else, the bidders who have reason to believe that the quantities given in the bill of quantities for one or more work items are underestimated will quote high on those items.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both cases, the unbalanced bids result in higher contract costs. In addition, in the first case, the incentive for the contractor to complete the contract is substantially reduced because the payments he would receive during the latter phases of the contract may be smaller than the costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steps to remedy the situation can, however, be taken in cases where the unbalancing is substantial, i.e. where the unit price quoted for the items involved are, say, 50 percent higher than the average quoted by the other bidders for the same items and where the total amount involved exceeds 5 percent of the total bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Remedial measures</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>In the case of very large contracts, say exceeding LKR 500 million:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The present value of all unbalanced items (using the work program as a basis for the timing of payments) can be computed, for over-pricing of the items that will be executed early during the performance. Simultaneously, the present value for such items can be computed using the prices of the engineer’s estimate. The difference between the two present values so computed can be added to the unbalance bid for comparison purposes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In cases of overpricing, the items that are believed to be underestimated in quantities should be adjusted by the inclusion of clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage rather than evaluating the effects at this stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>In the case of other contracts, say not exceeding LKR 500 million</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing early items, the remedial action should be based on the low quoted items rather than the items the bidder has quoted highly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidder shall be requested to prove to the satisfaction of the client /Procurement Entity (PE), how the bidder intends to procure such items/perform the Works/provide the Services as per the quoted rates, for such purposes the bidder may be asked to provide a rate analysis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the justification/explanation of the bidder is acceptable, the client/PE should proceed with the evaluation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the client/PE is of the view that the justification/explanation provided by the bidder is unacceptable, and hence the bidder would fail in the performance of his obligations within the quoted rates, higher performance security may be requested to mitigate such risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the bidder refuses to provide such additional performance security, his Bid shall be rejected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing high, the items believed to underestimated, rather than evaluating the effects at this stage it may be advisable to include clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage unless justified during the implementation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Price and Unbalanced Bids', 'The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1478-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-09 00:05:33', '2023-05-08 18:35:33', '', 1478, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1908', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2230, 1, '2024-07-21 23:32:33', '2024-07-21 18:02:33', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The work on a site for a low-rise building involves essential preparatory tasks to commence construction. These SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS ensure that everything is in place for the successful execution of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Checking Plot Boundaries</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS start with checking the plot boundaries as soon as the site is made available. This involves ensuring that the boundary stones are in place and that the dimensions match the site plans. Any discrepancies should be reconciled before any other work begins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Site Preparation Work</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, the following tasks are crucial:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Land Clearing</strong>: Includes demolition of existing buildings and disposal or recycling of waste.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Grading and Earthwork</strong>: The topsoil should be removed to a depth of 100-150 mm. The excavated topsoil is usually retained on-site for landscaping after construction. The site is graded by cutting and filling as needed, often using mechanical plants during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Stormwater Drainage and Erosion Control</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper stormwater drainage is a critical aspect of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS. The site should be graded to manage water flow effectively to prevent erosion, especially having removed the topsoil. If the water table is high, groundwater may need to be pumped out during foundation work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Access Roads</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Access roads and footpaths are essential for the movement of workers and materials as part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS. These must be well-planned with proper surfacing, curbs, and drainage. For long-duration sites with heavy traffic, temporary road surfaces may need to be asphalted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Essential Services</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, setting up necessary services such as water, electricity, and telecommunications is crucial:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Supply</strong>: This can come from mains supply with storage facilities, or wells with appropriate pumping and storage systems.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Electricity</strong>: Supplied from mains service or on-site generators.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Fuel Storage</strong>: Proper, dedicated storage facilities are essential to avoid safety hazards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Communication</strong>: Landlines, mobile services, email, and fax facilities should be established for efficient communication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Temporary Buildings</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction site, as part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, requires several temporary buildings:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Site Office</strong>: Positioned in a noise- and dust-free area with complete office facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Worker’s Mess</strong>: Located away from work zones, providing space and amenities for the workforce including first aid and recreational facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Canteen</strong>: Also away from work areas, equipped with adequate cooking and dining facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Stores</strong>: Strategically placed for security and ease of access, covered for perishable materials, and open for bulk materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Material Storage Considerations</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For efficiency during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, ensure material storage is appropriately organized:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cement</strong>: Stored under cover, near mixers.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Aggregates, Timber, Steel</strong>: Positioned conveniently within crane radius or near hoists.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bricks and Blocks</strong>: Located for ease of delivery and close to hoists.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Other Materials</strong>: Doors, windows, and fittings, are stored safely to avoid damage.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Plant and Equipment Setup</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper placement of machinery and equipment is critical during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Crane &amp; Hoist</strong>: Positioned based on load capacity and work requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Mixer</strong>: Close to main work areas and aggregate storage.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Generator</strong>: Isolated to ensure safety.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Block Maker, Steel Bender, Power Saws</strong>: Positioned for operational efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Safety Measures</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS also include setting up toilets and lavatories, hoarding, and fences. Ensure good drainage, adequate water supply, and easy maintenance for sanitary facilities. Security fences and safety signs are important to protect workers and the public</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2226-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:32:33', '2024-07-21 18:02:33', '', 2226, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2230', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2234, 1, '2024-07-21 23:46:55', '2024-07-21 18:16:55', '', 'Breach of Contract', 'Breach of Contract', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'the-two-colleagues-working-together-at-office-on-white-background', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:47:47', '2024-07-21 18:17:47', '', 2233, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/two-colleagues-working-together-office.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2235, 1, '2024-07-21 23:48:00', '2024-07-21 18:18:00', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When <strong>a breach of contract</strong> occurs, the injured party has several potential remedies available. However, any action must be brought within the limitation period. The primary remedies for <strong>breach of contract</strong> include damages, specific performance, and injunctions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Damages</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Damages are the most common judicial remedy for <strong>breach of contract</strong>. According to common law, the victim of a <strong>breach of contract</strong> is entitled to receive a sum of money as compensation for the harm suffered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>The Purpose of Damages in Contract Law</strong>:<br>Damages are intended to compensate the claimant by putting them in the position they would have been in if the contract had been performed as agreed. As explained in Robinson v Harman [1848], the purpose is to place the victim in the same position as if no <strong>contract breach</strong> had occurred.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Equitable Remedies</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Equitable remedies come into play when monetary damages are inadequate to address the harm caused by a <strong>breach of contract</strong>. These remedies include specific performance and injunctions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Situations where Equitable Remedies May Apply</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The subject matter of the contract is unique.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Damages are difficult to assess.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The defendant is unable to pay damages.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Damages to a party’s trade are at stake.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contract involves an error or misrepresentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The written contract does not reflect the actual agreement.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Equitable remedies are discretionary and are used when traditional damages cannot adequately resolve the harm caused by the <strong>breach of contract</strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Specific Performance</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Specific performance is a remedy where the court orders the breaching party to fulfill their obligations as per the contract. This remedy is suitable in scenarios where the subject matter is unique, such as real estate or rare items.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Key Conditions for Granting Specific Performance</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Not available if damages are an adequate remedy.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Suitable if the contract subject matter is unique.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Enforceable by the court.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Not applicable for prolonged or complex oversight, particularly in personal service contracts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Must be sought promptly without undue delay.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not cause undue hardship to the breaching party.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The claimant must be ready to fulfill their own contractual obligations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Must ensure mutuality of the obligation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The claimant’s request must be equitable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Injunctions</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Injunctions can be either mandatory (requiring a party to take a specific action) or prohibitory (preventing a party from doing something). Injunctions are often used to maintain the status quo pending the resolution of the main issue.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Types of Injunctions</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Mandatory Injunctions</strong>: Order the party to perform a specific act, though they are rarely granted due to enforcement difficulties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Prohibitory Injunctions</strong>: Prevent a party from breaching a legal or equitable right.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Perpetual vs. Interim Injunctions</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Perpetual Injunctions</strong>: Provide final relief and are granted when damages are inadequate.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interim Injunctions</strong>: Granted to prevent irreparable harm while the main issue is being resolved.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Common Scenarios for Injunctions in Contract Law</strong>:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Enforcing a restraint on trade.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preventing a breach of confidence.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encouraging the performance of personal service contracts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Understanding and navigating remedies for <strong>a breach of contract</strong> involves assessing the most suitable form of relief — whether it be monetary damages, specific performance, or injunctions — to address the harm caused by the breach effectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Law of Contract – Remedies for Breach of Contract', 'Discover the key remedies available for breach of contract, including damages, specific performance, and injunctions. Learn how each remedy works and when they are applicable in cases of contract breaches', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2233-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:48:00', '2024-07-21 18:18:00', '', 2233, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2235', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2036, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-10 21:13:32', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2036', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2036/', 65, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2037, 1, '2024-06-12 23:37:43', '2024-06-12 18:07:43', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Excavation means to loosen and take out materials, leaving space above or below ground. In civil engineering, earthwork includes backfilling with new or original materials to voids, spreading, and leveling over an area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The content of the excavation proposal should include the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Detail of method for ground protection treatment and dewatering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Survey of existing site condition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.1 accurate level survey</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.2 geotechnical survey</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.3 ground and surface water information</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.4 record/report of the surrounding facilities and structures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Detail design or construction proposal regarding:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.1 site/soil investigation report and geotechnical assumptions</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.2 detail of excavation/protection works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.3 sequence and method of works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.4 monitoring proposal</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>EXCAVATION</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Excavation in most situations is done by mechanical means. However, the exact method to be adopted still depends upon several factors:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Nature of subsoil – affects the type of machine used and the necessity of soil protection.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Size of excavation – affects the type of machine used and excavation method.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Scale of work – a large volume of excavation may involve complicated phasing arrangement and work planning</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Ground water condition – affects the degree of protection (watertight sheet piling or dewatering may be required.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Surrounding condition – impose certain restrictions and precautions (e.g. diversion of a drain, or underpinning work to the nearby building foundation)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Deep excavation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Deep excavation, unlike a shallow one, often requires protecting the sides of the cut using suitable support. Besides, the problem of groundwater cannot be avoided. There are methods to overcome this, such as:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>1. Dumpling method</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is used where there are buildings or streets in the proximity. The method is to construct a series of retaining walls in a trench, section by section, around the site perimeter, leaving a center called a \"dumpling\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the perimeter walls are in place, excavation may start at the center of the dumpling, until exposing a section of the wall. Then the wall may be side supported by struts, shoring, soil anchors, etc., again section by section in short lengths, until the excavation is all completed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2038,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2038\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Excavation and Construction of Shallow Basement using Dumpling Method</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method does not require much heavy mechanical equipment and thus cost of work is relatively lower. It can excavate up to a maximum depth of about 3m. Sometimes in very poor soil or waterlogged ground, interlocking steel sheet piles may be driven to confine the area to be excavated. After that excavation can be done in sections and properly supported similar to that mentioned above. By the use of sheet piles, excavation may reach a maximum of about 15m. However, the cost of work will be increased.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. <strong>Diaphragm walling</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2039,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2039\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Construction sequence of Diaphragm Wall</strong><strong></strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method needs to construct a Reinforced Concrete retaining wall along the area of work. Because the wall is designed to reach a very great depth, a mechanical excavating method is employed. A typical sequence of work includes:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Construct a guide wall &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Excavation for the diaphragm wall</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Excavation support using Bentonite slurry &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Insert reinforcement and concreting</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Construct a guide wall</strong> – A guide wall is two parallel concrete beams running as a guide to the clamshell which is used for the excavation of the diaphragm wall.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Excavation for the diaphragm wall</strong> – In normal soil conditions excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended by cables to a crane. The grab can easily chisel boulders in soil due to its weight.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Excavation support</strong> – excavation for the diaphragm wall produces a vertical strip in soil which can collapse easily. Bentonite slurry is used to protect the sides of the soil. Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay which, when added to water, forms an impervious cake-like slurry with large viscosity. The slurry will produce a great lateral pressure sufficient enough to retain the vertical soil.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Reinforcement </strong>– reinforcements are inserted in the form of a steel cage, but may require to lap and extend to the required length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Concreting </strong>– concreting is done using Tremie. As Concrete is being poured down, Bentonite will be displaced due to its density being lower than concrete. Bentonite is then collected and reused. Usually, compaction for concrete is not required for the weight of the Bentonite will drive most of the air voids in concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Joining design for the diaphragm wall – Diaphragm walling cannot be constructed continually for a very long section due to tremendous soil pressure. The wall is usually constructed in alternative sections. Two stop-end tubes will be placed at the ends of the excavated trench before concreting. The tubes are withdrawn at the same time as concreting so that a semi-circular end section is formed. Wall sections of this type are built alternatively leaving an intermediate section in between. The interior sections are built similarly but without the end tube. At the end, a continual diaphragm wall is constructed with the sections tightly joined by the semi-circular groove.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Using cofferdams</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2040,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2040\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Making use of sheet pile to form a cofferdam to support excavation</strong><strong></strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary box structure constructed in earth or water to exclude soil or water from a construction area, such as for foundation or basement works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Use of cofferdam suitable for excavation of larger scale can be of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) <strong>Sheet pile cofferdam</strong> – Also known as single skin cofferdam. Interlocking type steel sheet pile is used and can be used for excavation up to 15m. Sheet pile in this case acts as a cantilever member to support the soil therefore adequate depth of pile or suitable toe treatment may be required. In addition, cofferdams need to be braced and strutted or anchored using tie rods or ground anchors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) <strong>Double-skin cofferdam</strong> – This works similarly to the sheet pile to form a diaphragm. However, the diaphragm is double-skinned using two parallel rows of sheet piles with a filling material placed in the void between. This creates somewhat a gravity-retaining structure and increases the ability to counteract the soil behind. However, more working space is required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sheet Steel Piling</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steel, amongst other materials such as timber, is most effective to be used as a sheet pile due to its high tensile as well as its interlocking ability. It can be used as timbering to excavation in soft and/or waterlogged soils, especially in a congested site where there is not enough space for complicated shoring.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steel sheet piles can be of numerous shapes, thicknesses, and sizes. Most of them can be water-tight and for some heavy sections, they can be driven down to 15m depth. To erect and install a series of sheet piles and keep them vertical in all directions a guide frame may be required. The piles are lifted by a crane, using the lifting holes near the top of each pile, and positioning them between the guide walling of the guide. A Powered hammer (fitted with a grip to the pile) which is hung by the crane is usually used to drive the pile. Sometimes hydraulic hammers can be used to reduce noise.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is a tendency for the piles to lean in a direction during driving. Special control is therefore required to monitor the pile is vertical all the way through.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Ground anchor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2041,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2041\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A Ground anchor is a pre-stressing tendon embedded and anchored into soil or rock to provide resistance to structural movements by a “tying back\" principle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Common applications are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. General slope stabilization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Tying back/stabilizing a retaining structure</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Tying back/stabilizing for diaphragm walls, but for a temporary nature during excavation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Tying back the entire building from possible uplifting</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ground anchors can be classified into:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Rock anchor – for anchorage in rock</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Injection anchor – suitable for most cohesive and non-cohesive soils</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Method to form a ground anchor</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A hole is predrilled on soil or rock in a position carefully calculated. For rock anchors, an anchor bar with expanded sleeves at the end is inserted into the hole. A dense, high-strength grout is injected over a required length to develop sufficient resistance to hold the bar when it is stressed. Stressing is by hydraulic means and when the stress is developed, the head of the bar is held by an end plate and nut.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For injection anchors, a hole should be bored usually with an expanded end to increase anchorage ability. The pre-stressing bar is placed into the borehole and pressure grouted over the anchorage length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It should be noted that certain protection measure against corrosion or rusting is required for the stressing bar. Usually, the bar may be coated with bitumen, wrapped by greased tape, or filled with non-pressurized grout after stressing is completed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2042,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2042\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The tendon (steel rod) for tying the anchor before inserting it into the borehole</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2043,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2043\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Applying tension to stress the tendon to form the final anchor</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->', 'EXCAVATION in BUILDING CONSTRUCTION', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'excavation-in-building-construction', '', '', '2024-06-12 23:37:45', '2024-06-12 18:07:45', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2037', 0, 'post', '', 0);
