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(1588, 1, '2021-08-24 10:29:53', '2021-08-24 04:59:53', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs, affecting payment. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an Interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:29:53', '2021-08-24 04:59:53', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1588', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1587, 1, '2021-08-24 10:29:21', '2021-08-24 04:59:21', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs, affecting payment. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an Interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:29:21', '2021-08-24 04:59:21', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1587', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1591, 1, '2021-08-24 10:32:14', '2021-08-24 05:02:14', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:32:14', '2021-08-24 05:02:14', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1591', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1592, 1, '2021-08-24 10:32:43', '2021-08-24 05:02:43', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties, it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:32:43', '2021-08-24 05:02:43', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1592', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1600, 1, '2021-08-24 10:51:45', '2021-08-24 05:21:45', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, prior to their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract.Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete wall, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is the accepted practice that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be significantly enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:51:45', '2021-08-24 05:21:45', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1600', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1599, 1, '2021-08-24 10:50:49', '2021-08-24 05:20:49', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, prior to their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete wall, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is the accepted practice that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be significantly enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:50:49', '2021-08-24 05:20:49', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1599', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1594, 1, '2021-08-24 10:33:31', '2021-08-24 05:03:31', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties, it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:33:31', '2021-08-24 05:03:31', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1594', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1596, 1, '2021-08-24 10:34:35', '2021-08-24 05:04:35', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties, it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:34:35', '2021-08-24 05:04:35', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1596', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1598, 1, '2021-08-24 10:40:05', '2021-08-24 05:10:05', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties, it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract. </li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include; <ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:40:05', '2021-08-24 05:10:05', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1598', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1603, 1, '2021-08-24 10:58:07', '2021-08-24 05:28:07', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, before their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete walls, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The accepted practice is that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:58:07', '2021-08-24 05:28:07', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1603', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1602, 1, '2021-08-24 10:57:20', '2021-08-24 05:27:20', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, before their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete walls, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The accepted practice is that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be significantly enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:57:20', '2021-08-24 05:27:20', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1602', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1604, 1, '2021-08-25 21:27:55', '2021-08-25 15:57:55', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Limit on Variations </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Valuation of variations </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Dayworks</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Extension of time</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, variations are sources of disputes. It may be during the valuing the variation, or agreeing whether it is a variation at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some variations are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential variations and subsequent claims from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive site investigations and condition surveys.  </li><li>Ensuring that the project brief is complete and is supported by stakeholders.  </li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project. </li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified. </li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before tender.  </li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit. </li><li>Ensuring the contractor\'s rates are clear. </li><li>Preparing concise drawings, bills of quantities and specifications, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable. </li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'variations', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:11:13', '2021-08-26 07:41:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1604', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1626, 1, '2021-08-26 13:10:59', '2021-08-26 07:40:59', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Limit on Variations </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Valuation of variations </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Dayworks</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Extension of time</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, variations are sources of disputes. It may be during the valuing the variation, or agreeing whether it is a variation at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some variations are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential variations and subsequent claims from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive site investigations and condition surveys.  </li><li>Ensuring that the project brief is complete and is supported by stakeholders.  </li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project. </li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified. </li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before tender.  </li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit. </li><li>Ensuring the contractor\'s rates are clear. </li><li>Preparing concise drawings, bills of quantities and specifications, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable. </li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:10:59', '2021-08-26 07:40:59', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1626', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1624, 1, '2021-08-26 13:09:05', '2021-08-26 07:39:05', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, variations are sources of disputes. It may be during the valuing the variation, or agreeing whether it is a variation at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some variations are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential variations and subsequent claims from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive site investigations and condition surveys.  </li><li>Ensuring that the project brief is complete and is supported by stakeholders.  </li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project. </li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified. </li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before tender.  </li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit. </li><li>Ensuring the contractor\'s rates are clear. </li><li>Preparing concise drawings, bills of quantities and specifications, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable. </li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:09:05', '2021-08-26 07:39:05', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1624', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1622, 1, '2021-08-26 13:07:22', '2021-08-26 07:37:22', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, variations are sources of disputes. It may be during the valuing the variation, or agreeing whether it is a variation at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some variations are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential variations and subsequent claims from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive site investigations and condition surveys.  </li><li>Ensuring that the project brief is complete and is supported by stakeholders.  </li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project. </li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified. </li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>. </li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit. </li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear. </li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable. </li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:07:22', '2021-08-26 07:37:22', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1622', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1620, 1, '2021-08-26 13:05:59', '2021-08-26 07:35:59', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, variations are sources of disputes. It may be during the valuing the variation, or agreeing whether it is a variation at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some variations are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential variations and subsequent claims from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:05:59', '2021-08-26 07:35:59', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1620', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1618, 1, '2021-08-26 13:04:03', '2021-08-26 07:34:03', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, variations may (but do not necessarily) create relevant events that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the completion date. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:04:03', '2021-08-26 07:34:03', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1618', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1616, 1, '2021-08-26 13:02:56', '2021-08-26 07:32:56', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many construction contracts allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the contractor\'s fault. This is termed as an extension of time (EOT). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> may (but do not necessarily) create <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Relevant_events\">relevant events</a> that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Completion_date\">completion date</a>.&nbsp; <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:02:56', '2021-08-26 07:32:56', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1616', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1605, 1, '2021-08-25 21:27:31', '2021-08-25 15:57:31', '', 'wall-bricks-modern-768765', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'wall-bricks-modern-768765', '', '', '2021-08-25 21:27:31', '2021-08-25 15:57:31', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/wall-bricks-modern-768765.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1606, 1, '2021-08-25 21:27:55', '2021-08-25 15:57:55', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Day works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Day work basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Day work Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on Day work basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Day works sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Diaphragm_wall\">diaphragm wall</a> shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>’s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a> to give it to another.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> to help the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_contracts\">construction contracts</a> allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s fault. This is termed as an <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\">extension of time</a> (EOT).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> may (but do not necessarily) create <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Relevant_events\">relevant events</a> that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Completion_date\">completion date</a>.&nbsp; <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-25 21:27:55', '2021-08-25 15:57:55', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1606', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1819, 1, '2023-02-25 23:13:22', '2023-02-25 17:43:22', '', 'Toughned-glass', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'toughned-glass', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:13:22', '2023-02-25 17:43:22', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Toughned-glass.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
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(1820, 1, '2023-02-25 23:13:29', '2023-02-25 17:43:29', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>glass </em>refers to materials, usually blends of metallic oxides, mainly silica, which do not crystallize when cooled from the liquid to the solid state. It is the non-crystalline or amorphous structure of glass that gives rise to its transparency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1810,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Glass.png\" alt=\"Glass\" class=\"wp-image-1810\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass made from sand, lime, and soda ash has been known in Egypt for 5000 years. For many centuries glass was worked by drawing the molten material from a furnace. The glass was then rolled out or pressed into appropriate moulds and finally shaped by cutting and grinding.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Adding different metallic compounds to the melt, various coloured glasses can be manufactured. The blue colour was obtained by the addition of cobalt. Copper gives blue or red and iron or chromium produced green. In the fifteenth century, white opaque glass was produced by the addition of tin or arsenic. In the seventeenth century, ruby-red glass was made with the addition of gold chloride. Clear glass could be obtained by using antimony or manganese as a de-colourizer to remove the green colouration caused by iron impurities within the sand.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the late twentieth century, with the advent of fully glazed facades, the construction industry has become a major consumer of new glass. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>MANUFACTURE</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Soda lime silicate glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Modern glass is manufactured from sand (silica), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone (calcium carbonate), with small additions of salt cake (calcium sulfate) and dolomite (magnesium limestone). This gives a final composition of typically 70–74% silica, 12–16% sodium oxide, 5–12% calcium oxide, and 2–5% magnesium oxide with small quantities of aluminium, iron, and potassium oxides. The addition of 25% broken glass or <em>cullet </em>to the furnace mix accelerates the melting process and recycles the production waste. The production process is relatively energy intensive at 15,000 kWh/m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alkaline earth silicate, borosilicate, and ceramic glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Alkaline earth silicate and borosilicate glasses are also used in the construction field. These have considerably different chemical compositions, and, give their particular physical properties. The composition of alkaline earth silicate glass is typically 55–70% silica, 5–14% potassium oxide, 3–12% calcium oxide, and 0–15% aluminium oxide, with quantities of zirconium, strontium, and barium oxides.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Borosilicate glass is typically 70–87% silica, 0–8% sodium oxide, 0–8% potassium oxide, 7–15% boron oxide, and 0–8% aluminium oxide, with small quantities of other oxides. A particular characteristic of borosilicate glass is that it has a coefficient of expansion of one-third that of standard soda lime silicate glass. This property makes it considerably more resistant to thermal shock in case of fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass-ceramics have a zero coefficient of expansion. It makes them highly resistant to thermal shock. The composition of glass ceramics is complex comprising typically 50–80% silica, and 15–27% alumina, with small quantities of sodium oxide, potassium oxide, barium oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, zinc oxide, lithium oxide, and other minor constituents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The glass is initially produced by a standard float or rolling technique, but subsequent heat treatment converts part of the normal glassy phase into a fine-grained crystalline form, giving rise to particular physical properties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FORMING PROCESSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Early methods</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initially, crown glass was formed by spinning a 4 kg cylindrical gob of molten glass on the end of a blowpipe. The solid glass was blown, flattened out, and then transferred to a solid iron rod<em>. </em>After reheating it was spun until it opened out into a 1.5 m diameter disc. The process involved considerable wastage including the bullion in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An alternative process involved the blowing of a glass cylinder which was then split open and flattened out in a kiln. Subsequently, in a major development, circular metal bait was lowered into a pot of molten glass and withdrawn slowly, dragging up a cylindrical ribbon of glass 13 m high, the diameter of the cylinder being maintained with compressed air. The completed cylinder was then detached, opened up, and flattened out to produce flat window glass.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the development of the Fourcault process in Belgium and the Colburn process in America that it became possible to produce flat glass directly. A straight bait was drawn vertically out of the molten glass to produce a ribbon of glass, which was then drawn directly up a tower, or in the Colburn process turned horizontally, through a series of rollers; finally, appropriate lengths were cut off. However, such drawn sheet glass suffered from manufacturing distortions. This problem was overcome by the production of plate glass, which involved horizontal casting and rolling, followed by grinding to remove distortions and polishing to give a clear, transparent but expensive product. The plate glass manufacturing process is now practically obsolete. It has been replaced by the <em>float process.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FLOAT GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1811,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/FLOAT-GLASS-1024x339.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1811\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A furnace produces a continuous supply of molten glass at approximately 1100°C, which flows across the surface of a large shallow bath of molten tin contained within an atmosphere of hydrogen and nitrogen (this prevents oxidation of the surface of the molten metal). The glass ribbon moves across the molten metal, initially at a sufficiently high temperature for the irregularities on both surfaces to become evened out leaving a flat and parallel ribbon of glass. The temperature of the glass is gradually reduced as it moves forward until, at the end of the molten tin, it is sufficiently solid at 600°C not to be distorted when supported on rollers. Thickness is controlled by the speed at which the glass is drawn from the bath. Any residual stresses are removed as the glass passes through the 200 m annealing lehr or furnace, leaving a fire-polished material. Then, the glass is washed, and substandard material is discarded for recycling. The computer-controlled cutting, firstly across the ribbon, then the removal of the edges, is followed by stacking, warehousing, and dispatch.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Float glass for the construction industry is made within the thickness range of 2–25 mm, although 0.5 mm is available for the electronics industry. Many surface-modified glasses are produced by incorporating metal ions into the glass within the float process. Body-tinted glass, which is of uniform colour, is manufactured by blending additional metal oxides into the standard melt.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>NON-SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass fibres</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Continuous filament</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Continuous glass fibres are manufactured by constantly feeding molten glass from a furnace into a forehearth fitted with 1600 accurately manufactured holes. Molten glass is drawn through these holes, at a rate of several thousand metres per second. The fibres are as small as 9 microns in diameter. They pass over a size applicator and are gathered together as a bundle before to being wound up on a collet. The material may then be used as rovings, chopped strand, or woven strand mats for the production of glass-fibre reinforced materials such as GRP (glass-fibre reinforced polyester), GRC (glass-fibre reinforced cement), or GRG (glass-fibre reinforced gypsum).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass wool</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass wool is used as an insulation material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Cast glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass may be cast and pressed into shape for glass blocks and extruded sections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Profiled sections</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Profile trough sections in clear or colored 6 or 7 mm cast glass are manufactured in sizes ranging from 232 to 498 mm wide, 41 and 60 mm deep, and up to 7 m long, with or without stainless steel longitudinal wires. The system can be used horizontally or vertically, as single or double glazing, and as a roofing system spanning up to 3 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1812,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Profiled-sections.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1812\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A large radius curve is possible as well as the normal straight butt jointed system. The joints are sealed with a one-part translucent silicone.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Amber or blue-tinted versions are available for solar control or aesthetic reasons. The double-glazed system produces a sound reduction within the 100–3200 Hz range of typically 40 dB.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The incorporation of 16-mm-thick translucent aerogel-insulated polycarbonate panels into profiled trough sections significantly increases the thermal insulating properties of the units. Airborne sound insulation is enhanced. Light transmission through the translucent aerogel panels is approximately 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass blocks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks for non-load-bearing walls and partitions are manufactured by casting two half blocks at 1050°C, joining them together at 800°C, followed by annealing at 560°C. The void space is partially evacuated. The standard blocks are 115, 190, 240, and 300 mm square with thicknesses of 80 and 100 mm, although rectangular and circular blocks are also available. The variety of patterns offering differing degrees of privacy includes clear, frosted, and crystal designs with colours from blue, green, and grey to pink and gold. For exterior and fire-retarding applications natural or coloured mortar (2 parts Portland cement, 1 part lime, 8 parts sand) is used for the jointing. Walls may be straight or curved. Bullet-proof blocks are available for higher security situations. For interior use, blocks can be laid with sealant rather than mortar.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks jointed with mortar give a fire resistance of 30 or 60 minutes of stability and integrity but not insulation. Fire stop blocks (F-30) manufactured from 26 mm rather than 8 mm glass offer increased fire protection of two hours’ integrity and 30 minutes’ thermal insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard float glass sizes</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The standard thicknesses for float glass are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19, and 25 mm to maximum sheet sizes of 3 to 12 m. Thicker grades are available in smaller sheet sizes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Traditional blown and drawn glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditional blown and drawn glasses are available commercially both clear and in a wide range of colours. Drawn glass up to 1600 - 1200 mm is optically clear but varies in thickness from 3 to 5 mm. It is normally used for conservation work where old glass requires replacement. The blown glass contains variable quantities of air bubbles. Also, it has significant variations in thickness giving an antique appearance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Curved sheet glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curved glass can be manufactured by heating annealed glass to approximately 600°C when it softens and sag-bends to the shape of the supporting mould. Sheets up to 3 m - 4 m can be bent with curvature in either one or two directions. Bent glass can subsequently be sandblasted, toughened, or laminated, even incorporating coloured interlayers if required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Self-cleaning glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Self-cleaning glass has an invisible hard coating of 15 microns thick. These coatings include two special features. The surface incorporating titanium dioxide is photocatalytic. It absorbs ultraviolet light, which with oxygen from the air breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. Furthermore, the surface is hydrophilic. It causes rainwater to spread evenly over the surface, rather than running down in droplets. Therefore, the surface is uniformly washed and prevents any unsightly streaks or spots from appearing when the surface dries. Self-cleaning glass has a somewhat greater mirror effect than ordinary float glass, with a faint blue tint. It is available as normal annealed glass also in toughened or laminated form. The surface coating, which reduces the transmittance of the glass by about 5%, is tough but as with any glass can be damaged by scratching. A blue solar control version reduces the solar heat gain by approximately 60% depending upon the thickness of the glass used and its combination in a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Clear white glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard float glass is somewhat greener due to the effect of iron oxide impurities in the key raw material sand. However, clear white glass can be produced, at a greater cost, by using purified ingredients. The light transmittance of clear white glass is approximately 2% greater than standard glass for 4 and 6 mm glazing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Embossed pattern glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wide range of 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm patterned glass is commercially available. The degree of privacy afforded by the various glasses is not only dependent upon the pattern but also upon the relative lighting levels on either side and the proximity of any object to the glass. Patterned glasses may be toughened, laminated, or incorporated into double-glazing units for thermal, acoustic, or safety considerations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Screen printed glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>White or coloured ceramic frit is screen printed onto clear or tinted float glass. It is then toughened and heat soaked, causing the ceramic enamel to fuse permanently into the glass surface. Standard patterns or individual designs may be created, giving the required level of solar transmission and privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Decorative etched and sandblasted glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acid etched glass, 4 mm and 6 mm in thickness, is available to a maximum sheet size of 2140 – 1320 mm with a small range of patterns. Etched glasses need to be handled carefully on-site, as oil, grease, and finger marks are difficult to remove completely. Similar visual effects can be achieved by sandblasting techniques, but it gives the surface finish less smooth. Patterns may be clear on a frosted background or the reverse, depending upon the aesthetic effect and level of privacy required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Georgian wired glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Georgian wired glass is produced by rolling a sandwich of a 13 mm electrically welded steel wire mesh between two ribbons of molten glass. This produces the standard cast 7 mm sheet, suitable when obscuration is required. Wired glass is not stronger than the equivalent thickness of annealed glass. However, when cracked, the pieces remain held together. On exposure to fire, the wire mesh dissipates some heat, but ultimately Georgian glass will crack, particularly if sprayed with water when hot. Accidental damage may cause the breakage of the glass. But again it is retained in position by the mesh, at least until the wires are affected by corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Toughened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass is up to four or five times stronger than standard annealed glass of the same thickness. It is produced by subjecting preheated annealed glass at 650°C to rapid surface cooling by the application of jets of air. This causes the outer faces to be set in compression with balancing tension forces within the centre of the glass. As cracking within glass commences with tensile failure at the surface, much greater force can be withstood before this critical point is reached. Toughened glass cannot be cut or worked. Therefore all necessary cutting, drilling of holes, and grinding or polishing of edges must be completed in advance of the toughening process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1819,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Toughned-glass.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1819\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass will withstand considerable extremes of temperature and sudden shock temperatures. When broken, it shatters into small granules. This is not likely to cause serious injuries related to the accidental breakage of annealed glass. Any standard float, coated, roughcast, and patterned glasses can be toughened.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Heat-strengthened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heat-strengthened glass is manufactured by a similar process to toughening, but with a slower rate of cooling which produces only half the strength of toughened glass. On severe impact, heat-strengthened glass breaks into large pieces like annealed glass. Therefore it cannot be considered a safety glass. Heat-strengthened glass is frequently used in laminated glass where the residual strength after fracture gives some integrity to the laminate. Typical applications include locations where resistance to wind pressure is necessary, such as the upper storeys and corners of high buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Laminated glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Laminated glass is produced by bonding two or more layers of glass together with a plastic interlayer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) sheet or a polymethyl methacrylate low-viscosity resin. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1817,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass-2-585x1024.png\" alt=\"Anti bandit glass\" class=\"wp-image-1817\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The lamination process increases the impact resistance compared to annealed glass of the same thickness. Furthermore on impact, whilst the glass laminations crack, they do so without splintering or disintegration, being held together by the interlayer. Therefore, laminated glass can be defined as <em>safety glass</em>. The impact resistance of laminated glass may be increased using thicker interlayers or increasing the number of laminates or the inclusion of polycarbonate sheets. Typically, anti-bandit glass has two or three glass laminates while, depending on the anticipated caliber and muzzle velocity,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>bullet-resistant glass has four or more glass laminates. To prevent spalling, the rear face of bullet-resistant glass may be sealed with a scratch-resistant polyester film and for fire protection</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Insulating glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insulating glasses are manufactured from float glass laminated with either intumescent or gel materials. Intumescent laminated glass has clear interlayers. When exposed to fire, intumescent or gel materials expand to a white opaque material, preventing the passage of conductive and radiant heat. The glass layers adjacent to the fire crack but retain integrity owing to their adhesion with the interlayers. The fire resistance, ranging between 30 and 120 minutes for insulation and integrity, depends on the number of laminations, usually between 3 and 5.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1816,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass.png\" alt=\"Laminated glass\" class=\"wp-image-1816\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Fire-resistant glass with intumescent material laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SPECIAL GLASSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>One-way observation glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where unobserved surveillance is required, one-way observation mirror glass can be installed. To maintain privacy, the observer must be at an illumination level no greater than one-seventh that of the observed area and wear dark clothing. From the observed area, the one-way observation glass has the appearance of a normal mirror. One-way observation glass is available in annealed, toughened, or laminated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mirror glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard mirror glass is manufactured by the chemical deposition onto float glass of a thin film of silver, from aqueous silver and copper salt solutions. The film is then protected with two coats of paint or a plastic layer. Mirror glass is produced by the online application of a three-layer coating of silicon-silica-silicon, which acts by optical interference to give the mirror effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alarm glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;</strong>Glass containing either a ceramic loop or a series of straight wires can be incorporated into an intruder alarm system, which is activated when the glass is broken. Usually, straight-wired alarm glass is incorporated into a laminated system, while a ceramic loop circuit would be fixed to the inner face of the toughened outer pane within a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electrically-heatable laminated safety glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It incorporates fine electrically conducting wires which may be switched on when there is a risk of condensation. Typical applications are in areas of high humidity, such as swimming pools, kitchens, and glass roofs, particularly when there are significant differences between the internal and external temperatures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electromagnetic radiation-shielding glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Itcan be used to protect building zones containing magnetically stored data from accidental or deliberate corruption by external electric fields. For maximum security, the conducting laminates within the composite glass should be in full peripheral electrical contact with the metal window frames and the surrounding wall surface screening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>X-ray protection glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It contains 70% lead oxide, which produces significant shielding against ionizing radiation. The glass is amber in colour due to the high lead content. A 6 mm sheet of this lead glass has the equivalent shielding effect of a 2 mm lead sheet against radiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Variable transmission (smart) glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variable transmission or <em>smart </em>glasses change their optical and thermal characteristics under the influence of light (photochromic), heat (thermochromic), or electric potential (electrochromic). These glasses offer the potential of highly responsive dynamic climate control to building facades. These smart materials including thermotropic products are also available as plastic laminates for incorporation into laminated glass systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electro-optic laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Electrically operated vision-control glass consists of a laminated system of glass and polyvinyl butyral layers containing a polymer-dispersed liquid crystal layer, which can be electrically switched from transparent to white/translucent for privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional glass coatings reduce both light and heat transmission. However, a coating based on tungsten-modified vanadium dioxide allows visible light through at all times but reflects infrared radiation at temperatures above 29°C. Thus, at this temperature, further heat penetration through the glass is blocked. Therefore the intelligent glass, which has a slight yellow/green colour, admits useful solar gain in cooler conditions but cuts out excessive infrared solar gain under hot conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass facades</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An intelligent glass building facade changes its physical properties, in response to sensors detecting the external light and weather conditions, thus reducing the energy consumption necessary to maintain the appropriate internal environment. Therefore intelligent facades have ecological significance in reducing global greenhouse emissions and also in reducing operational building costs to clients and users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>STRUCTURAL GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass columns are frequently used as fins to restrain excessive deflection caused by wind and other lateral loads to glass facades. The fixings between the façade glazing and fin units are usually stainless steel clamps bolted through preformed holes in the toughened or laminated glass, although silicone adhesives can also be used. A soft interlayer between the metal fixing and the glass is incorporated to prevent stress concentrations on the glass surface and to allow for differential thermal movement between the glass and metal. Glass is strong in compression and therefore an appropriate material for load-bearing columns and walls, providing that the design ensures sufficient strength, stiffness, and stability. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Glass - as construction material', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1809-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:13:29', '2023-02-25 17:43:29', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1820', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1608, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-08-25 15:58:35', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1608', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1608/', 56, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1628, 1, '2021-08-28 22:39:14', '2021-08-28 17:09:14', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To be a variation, there must be changes to what parties have agreed in the original contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, one has to carefully examine the original contract document, in which the description of the work and other obligations of the parties are mentioned, to clarify whether any work comes under variation or not.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following case law gives understanding about whether any work item is included in the contract or else to be treated as a variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Williams v Fitzmaurice (1858)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this case, a contractor - the plaintiff - agreed to build a house for the client - the defendant. He prepared a specification that included particulars of the different portions of the work. Under the section – Carpenter and Joinery – specification contained scantling of the joists for different floors, rafters, ridge, and wall pieces to be used. But, there was no mention of the floorboards to be used. The agreed price was £1,100.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wordings of the specification were as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"the whole of the materials mentioned or otherwise in the foregoing particulars, necessary for the completion of the work, must be provided by the contractor\".</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the foot of the specification, the plaintiff signed a memorandum. In that, the plaintiff has agreed with the defendant the following.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"to do all the work mentioned and contained in the foregoing particulars, according to in every respect to the drawings furnished or to be furnished, for the sum of </em>£<em>1,100”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per the contract, the house was to be completed and fit for the defendant\'s occupation by the 1st of August, 1858.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plaintiff refused to fix floorboards until paid extra, saying that they were not part of his contract. The defendant terminated the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court held that the plaintiff could not recover either the amount outstanding or the cost of the floorboards, which the defendant had seized upon taking over the site.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“not entitled to recover for the flooring as an extra, because it was included in the contract though not mentioned in the specification”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>According to the words used in the contract, it was inferred that flooring was necessary to complete the house.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, whether a particular work is a variation or not will depend on as long as it comes within the general scope of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some works, although not specifically described, are nevertheless considered as implied or form a necessary part of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Sharpe v San Paulo Railway Co (1873)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 8th February 1860, Robert Sharpe &amp; Sons – the plaintiff - signed a contract with the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Railway_Company\">San Paulo Railway Company</a> – the defendant - to build a railway line between&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos,_S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">Santos</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jundia%C3%AD\">Jundiahy</a>, via&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">São Paulo</a>, in Brazil, for the agreed sum of £1,745,000.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was a lump-sum contract to complete the whole railway line, with everything necessary completion, from the beginning to the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 1st October 1866, the railway line was completed, handed over to, and accepted by the company.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the engineer\'s original plans were inadequate for the construction, and vastly underestimated the amount of excavation required. Additional plans were provided. And the contractor had to carry out 2 million cubic yards of excavation over and above what they had initially anticipated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In 1871, the contractor attempted to sue San Paulo Railway to recover additional costs of £617,143 which they had incurred when the company\'s engineer had altered the plans from the original specification.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case reached the Court of Appeal in 1872 but was rejected.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The learned judge held that:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the amount of excavation was a thing the contractors ought to have looked at for themselves and made out their own calculations”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“if the contractors had disapproved of the new arrangements, they ought to have entered into a fresh contract with the company”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“The (plaintiff) says that the original specification was not sufficient to make a complete railway line and that it became obvious that something more would be required to be done to make the</em> <em>line. But their business, and what they had contracted to do for a lump sum, was to make the line from terminus to terminus complete. And both these items seem to me to be on the face of them entirely included in the contract. They are not in any sense of the word extra works”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the works were not in any sense additional to the contractually required performance. Because of the wording of the contract, the additional work could not be described as extra works”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It should be noted in this particular contract, the engineer\'s plans did not supersede the primary commitment to building the railway line.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there were differently worded commitment (e.g. \'build the railway in accordance with the engineer\'s plans\') would have given rise to the risk of insufficiency of the engineer\'s plans falling upon the employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All construction contract conditions comprise the provision for a written instruction or order for varied and/or extra work. Without those written instructions, the Contractor cannot recover nor get compensation for such additional works unless he can prove that there has been a new and succeeding contract for him to be paid for those extra works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This subsequent contract may be in the form of an oral agreement. Or it may be in the implied form from the conduct of the parties.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must show an agreement by the parties that the additional work was to be done and an agreement by the owner to pay for it or at least the owner must have benefited from the extra work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is suggested that the Contractors should at least put in writing any oral instruction or confirmation or agreement. These written confirmations must show the intention and conduct of the parties for such ‘extra work’. Then the contractor can provide those as prima facie evidence for claiming the additional payment for such extra work when a dispute arises.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law – Is it a Variation or Not?', 'In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. ', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'case-law', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:33:13', '2021-08-29 02:03:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1628', 0, 'post', '', 1),
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(1630, 1, '2021-08-28 22:39:14', '2021-08-28 17:09:14', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To be a variation, there must be changes to what parties have agreed in the original contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, one has to carefully examine the original contract document, in which the description of the work and other obligations of the parties are mentioned, to clarify whether any work comes under variation or not.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following case law gives understanding about whether any work item is included in the contract or else to be treated as a variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Williams v Fitzmaurice (1858)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this case, a contractor - the plaintiff - agreed to build a house for the client - the defendant. He prepared a specification that included particulars of the different portions of the work. Under the section – Carpenter and Joinery – specification contained scantling of the joists for different floors, rafters, ridge, and wall pieces to be used. But, there was no mention of the floorboards to be used. The agreed price was £1,100.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wordings of the specification were as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"the whole of the materials mentioned or otherwise in the foregoing particulars, necessary for the completion of the work, must be provided by the contractor\".</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the foot of the specification, the plaintiff signed a memorandum. In that, the plaintiff has agreed with the defendant the following.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"to do all the work mentioned and contained in the foregoing particulars, according to in every respect to the drawings furnished or to be furnished, for the sum of </em>£<em>1,100”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per the contract, the house was to be completed and fit for the defendant\'s occupation by the 1st of August, 1858.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plaintiff refused to fix floorboards until paid extra, saying that they were not part of his contract. The defendant terminated the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court held that the plaintiff could not recover either the amount outstanding or the cost of the floorboards, which the defendant had seized upon taking over the site.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“not entitled to recover for the flooring as an extra, because it was included in the contract though not mentioned in the specification”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>According to the words used in the contract, it was inferred that flooring was necessary to complete the house.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, whether a particular work is a variation or not will depend on as long as it comes within the general scope of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some works, although not specifically described, are nevertheless considered as implied or form a necessary part of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Sharpe v San Paulo Railway Co (1873)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 8th February 1860, Robert Sharpe &amp; Sons – the plaintiff - signed a contract with the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Railway_Company\">San Paulo Railway Company</a> – the defendant - to build a railway line between&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos,_S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">Santos</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jundia%C3%AD\">Jundiahy</a>, via&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">São Paulo</a>, in Brazil, for the agreed sum of £1,745,000.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was a lump-sum contract to complete the whole railway line, with everything necessary completion, from the beginning to the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 1st October 1866, the railway line was completed, handed over to, and accepted by the company.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the engineer\'s original plans were inadequate for the construction, and vastly underestimated the amount of excavation required. Additional plans were provided. And the contractor had to carry out 2 million cubic yards of excavation over and above what they had initially anticipated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In 1871, the contractor attempted to sue San Paulo Railway to recover additional costs of £617,143 which they had incurred when the company\'s engineer had altered the plans from the original specification.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case reached the Court of Appeal in 1872 but was rejected.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The learned judge held that:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the amount of excavation was a thing the contractors ought to have looked at for themselves and made out their own calculations”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“if the contractors had disapproved of the new arrangements, they ought to have entered into a fresh contract with the company”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“The (plaintiff) says that the original specification was not sufficient to make a complete railway line and that it became obvious that something more would be required to be done to make the</em> <em>line. But their business, and what they had contracted to do for a lump sum, was to make the line from terminus to terminus complete. And both these items seem to me to be on the face of them entirely included in the contract. They are not in any sense of the word extra works”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the works were not in any sense additional to the contractually required performance. Because of the wording of the contract, the additional work could not be described as extra works”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It should be noted in this particular contract, the engineer\'s plans did not supersede the primary commitment to building the railway line.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there were differently worded commitment (e.g. \'build the railway in accordance with the engineer\'s plans\') would have given rise to the risk of insufficiency of the engineer\'s plans falling upon the employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All construction contract conditions comprise the provision for a written instruction or order for varied and/or extra work. Without those written instructions, the Contractor cannot recover nor get compensation for such additional works unless he can prove that there has been a new and succeeding contract for him to be paid for those extra works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This subsequent contract may be in the form of an oral agreement. Or it may be in the implied form from the conduct of the parties.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must show an agreement by the parties that the additional work was to be done and an agreement by the owner to pay for it or at least the owner must have benefited from the extra work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is suggested that the Contractors should at least put in writing any oral instruction or confirmation or agreement. These written confirmations must show the intention and conduct of the parties for such ‘extra work’. Then the contractor can provide those as prima facie evidence for claiming the additional payment for such extra work when a dispute arises.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law – Is it a Variation or Not?', 'In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1628-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-28 22:39:14', '2021-08-28 17:09:14', '', 1628, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1630', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1614, 1, '2021-08-26 13:01:30', '2021-08-26 07:31:30', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for diaphragm wall shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from the contractor\'s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the contractor to give to another. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order variations to help the contractor, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_contracts\">construction contracts</a> allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s fault. This is termed as an <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\">extension of time</a> (EOT).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> may (but do not necessarily) create <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Relevant_events\">relevant events</a> that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Completion_date\">completion date</a>.&nbsp; <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 13:01:30', '2021-08-26 07:31:30', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1614', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1612, 1, '2021-08-26 12:59:12', '2021-08-26 07:29:12', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on a Daywork basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Daywork sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month, the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials, and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of variation, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Diaphragm_wall\">diaphragm wall</a> shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>’s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a> to give it to another.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> to help the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_contracts\">construction contracts</a> allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s fault. This is termed as an <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\">extension of time</a> (EOT).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> may (but do not necessarily) create <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Relevant_events\">relevant events</a> that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Completion_date\">completion date</a>.&nbsp; <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 12:59:12', '2021-08-26 07:29:12', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1612', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1610, 1, '2021-08-26 12:57:00', '2021-08-26 07:27:00', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations are to be instructed by the Engineer (depending on the provisions of the contract). And the Contractor shall execute and be bound by each variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – in Sri Lanka - </em><strong><em>Clause 39.1</em></strong><em> – Variations may be initiated by the Engineer at any time before issuing Certificate of Completion for the Works, either by instruction or by a request for the Contractor to submit a proposal).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li><em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.3</em></strong><em> – The Contractor shall execute and be bound by each Variation unless the Contractor promptly gives notice to the Engineer with supporting documents to establish that he cannot obtain the necessary Equipment, Materials, Plant and Temporary Works or any of them as appropriate, required for the Variation. Upon receiving this notice, the Engineer shall re-confirm, vary or cancel the instruction).</em></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations will normally consist of one or more of the following: <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.4</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Alteration or modification to the design, quality, or quantity of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Additions, omissions, or substitution of items of work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Confirmation of the expenditure of Prime Cost or Provisional Sums;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to sequence, method, or timing of the works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Changes to the line, level, position, or dimension of part or the whole of the works; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Any additional work, plant, Materials, or services necessary for the Permanent works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Limit on Variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(ICTAD/SBD/01 – </em><strong><em>Clause 39.2</em></strong><em> – Variations may be ordered by the Engineer provided the cumulative value of all such variations issued does not exceed a sum specified in the Contract Data. Any variations ordered above this limit would need the prior approval of the Employer).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All such instructions for variations from the Engineer must be in writing. If the contractor carries out any variations involving him in additional expense, and the variation has not been subjected to a written Engineer’s instructions, the contractor then runs the risk of being unable to recover the extra cost involved in the variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the Contractor is protected, when any instructions being given orally. The Contractor can send, within seven days, a written request asking confirmation for any oral instructions given by the Engineer. Then the Engineer has the opportunity during seven days following receipt of that request to dissent or differ; otherwise, the instruction becomes effective immediately.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Project Quantity Surveyor must satisfy himself, before giving financial effect to any variation whether written instructions have been given by the Engineer ordering the variation. Or else, he must see whether the contractor claims to have confirmed oral instructions that the Engineer does not dissent from such confirmation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the Project Quantity Surveyor has no authority to adjust the Contract sum in respect of a variation, which has not been put into the form of the Engineer’s written approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to complete an early evaluation of the issued variations and then communicate these to the Contractor as soon as possible.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It will help;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) to assess the possible final contract sum;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) to identify any impending claims arising from variations;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) to provide the Contractor with the QS’s assessed amount of the variation; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) to expedite the settlement of the final account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown above, in (c), the Contractor then knows how much he would be paid for a particular variation. Then, if necessary, he can settle rates with a Subcontractor. It helps to control his cost more effectively. This will make the finalization of final accounts much easier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard Method of Measurement rules used for the preparation of Bills of Quantities should apply equally when measuring variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Valuation of variations</strong>&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All extra or additional work done or work omitted by order of the Engineer shall be valued at the rates and prices set out in the Contract, if the same can be applicable. (for works of similar character in similar conditions). <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract does not contain any rates or prices applicable to the extra or additional work, then suitable rates or prices shall be agreed upon between the Engineer and the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following methods also can be used for fixing rates other than the one mentioned above. (for the dissimilar character in dissimilar conditions)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- calculating proportionate rate (pro-rata)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using standard Schedule of Rates</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using day works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the event of disagreement about rates, the Engineer has the power to fix rates or prices, in his opinion, are reasonable and proper. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 40.3</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dayworks</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer may order in writing that any variation shall be executed on a Daywork basis. The Contractor shall then be paid for such work under the conditions set out in the Daywork Schedule included in the contract and at the rates and prices affixed there by the contractor in his tender. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In respect of all works executed on Day work basis, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer’s Representative an exact list of the names, occupation and time of all workmen employed on such work and a statement, commonly called “Day works sheets”, showing the description and quantity of all materials and plant used. One copy of each list and statement will, if correct, be signed by the Engineer’s representative and returned to the Contractor. <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 53.2</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the end of each month the Contractor shall deliver to the Engineer’s Representative a priced statement of the labour, materials and plants used. However, if they are accepted and the hours and quantities shown on them are considered to be excessive, the Project Quantity Surveyor should reduce them to reasonable amounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The rates and prices used for valuing day work should be those current at the time the work was carried out, not those current at the date of tender. The rates of labour used in valuing day work should be based on standard wage rates.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the pretext of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, the Engineer cannot change the nature of works. For example, if the contract provides for secant pile shoring, they cannot ask for <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Diaphragm_wall\">diaphragm wall</a> shoring as it will entirely change the nature of the work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Engineer omits work from <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>’s scope under variation order, such an omission must be genuine. The work omitted must be omitted from the contract entirely. Omissions cannot be used to take work away from the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a> to give it to another.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Also, the Engineer is not allowed to order <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> to help the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>, when the works are too difficult or expensive for them.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\"><strong>Extension of time</strong></a></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_contracts\">construction contracts</a> allow the construction period to be extended when there are delays that are not due to the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s fault. This is termed as an <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Extension_of_time\">extension of time</a> (EOT).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> may (but do not necessarily) create <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Relevant_events\">relevant events</a> that can merit an extension of time and thereby adjustment of the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Completion_date\">completion date</a>.&nbsp; <em>(ICTAD/SBD/1 – </em><strong><em>Clause 28.1</em></strong><em>)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are sources of <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Dispute\">dispute</a>s. It may be during the valuing the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a>, or agreeing whether it is a <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variation\">variation</a> at all. Then, it can cost a lot of time and money during the course of a contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true that some <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> are unavoidable in constructions. But, it is wise to minimize potential <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Variations\">variations</a> and subsequent <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Claims\">claims</a> from variations. It can be done by ensuring that uncertainties are eliminated before awarding the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be done by:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Undertaking comprehensive <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_investigation\">site investigations</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Condition_survey\">condition surveys</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Project_brief\">project brief</a> is complete and is supported by <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Stakeholders\">stakeholders</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that legislative requirements are properly incorporated into the project.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that risks are properly identified.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring that designs are properly coordinated before <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tender\">tender</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the contract is unambiguous and explicit.&nbsp;</li><li>Ensuring the <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Contractor\">contractor</a>\'s rates are clear.&nbsp;</li><li>Preparing concise <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Drawings\">drawings</a>, <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Bills_of_quantities\">bills of quantities</a> and <a href=\"http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Specifications\">specifications</a>, providing for all situations which are reasonably foreseeable.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Variations', 'Variations can be defined as changes to the design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. Therefore, normally it will result in either increase or decrease from the contract sum.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1604-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-26 12:57:00', '2021-08-26 07:27:00', '', 1604, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1610', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1632, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-08-28 17:10:05', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1632', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1632/', 17, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1633, 1, '2021-08-28 22:44:40', '2021-08-28 17:14:40', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main feature necessary for this is the need for an agreement between parties. If the contract terms do not provide this requirement, there is no power for the employer or his agent to order variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under that situation, if the employer wants to change something, always he must first seek the consent of the contractor before varying any work under the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, usually in every Conditions of Contact, there is a clause empowering the employer to vary the work. Case law - <em>Stockport MBC v O’Reilly (1978) – </em>discusses the need for having provisions to vary the work in the agreement between parties to the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council v O’Reilly (1978)</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>O’Reilly entered into a contract to build 105 houses, garages, and ancillary works for the council. The contract was in JCT 63 form. According to the agreement, the completion date was in November 1969.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect requested to impose phases in place of dates and also gave instructions to employ some people on particular sections of the work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these and other instructions were not allowed by any of the conditions of the contract. In that situation, no power to issue variation is implied.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes between the parties for payments were referred to arbitration. One of the points at issue was the extent to which the work had been varied. The interim award of the arbitrator allowing payments was questioned before the court, and the court set aside the arbitrator’s award.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was mentioned in the judgment that the arbitrator failed in his interim award to find the extent to which the works had been varied. The arbitrator has confused variations under the contract with orders given by the architect which were not authorized by the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was held that not to burden the employer with liability because of the architect’s ultra vires acts. It is because the architect has no authority to vary the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the parties agree to the instructions, the contract may be pro tanto varied. If not, the contractor is entitled to protest and ignore the instructions.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Power needed to issue variations', 'Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'case-law-power-needed-to-issue-variations', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:34:11', '2021-08-29 02:04:11', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1633', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1634, 1, '2021-08-28 22:44:21', '2021-08-28 17:14:21', '', 'hammer-books-law-719068', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'hammer-books-law-719068', '', '', '2021-08-28 22:44:21', '2021-08-28 17:14:21', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/hammer-books-law-719068.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
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(1635, 1, '2021-08-28 22:44:40', '2021-08-28 17:14:40', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main feature necessary for this is the need for an agreement between parties. If the contract terms do not provide this requirement, there is no power for the employer or his agent to order variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under that situation, if the employer wants to change something, always he must first seek the consent of the contractor before varying any work under the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, usually in every Conditions of Contact, there is a clause empowering the employer to vary the work. Case law - <em>Stockport MBC v O’Reilly (1978) – </em>discusses the need for having provisions to vary the work in the agreement between parties to the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council v O’Reilly (1978)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>O’Reilly entered into a contract to build 105 houses, garages, and ancillary works for the council. The contract was in JCT 63 form. According to the agreement, the completion date was in November 1969.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect requested to impose phases in place of dates and also gave instructions to employ some people on particular sections of the work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these and other instructions were not allowed by any of the conditions of the contract. In that situation, no power to issue variation is implied.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes between the parties for payments were referred to arbitration. One of the points at issue was the extent to which the work had been varied. The interim award of the arbitrator allowing payments was questioned before the court, and the court set aside the arbitrator’s award.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was mentioned in the judgment that the arbitrator failed in his interim award to find the extent to which the works had been varied. The arbitrator has confused variations under the contract with orders given by the architect which were not authorized by the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was held that not to burden the employer with liability because of the architect’s ultra vires acts. It is because the architect has no authority to vary the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the parties agree to the instructions, the contract may be pro tanto varied. If not, the contractor is entitled to protest and ignore the instructions.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Power needed to issue variations', 'Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1633-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-28 22:44:40', '2021-08-28 17:14:40', '', 1633, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1635', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1816, 1, '2023-02-25 23:09:55', '2023-02-25 17:39:55', '', 'Laminated-glass', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'laminated-glass', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:09:55', '2023-02-25 17:39:55', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1817, 1, '2023-02-25 23:11:13', '2023-02-25 17:41:13', '', 'Laminated-glass-2', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'laminated-glass-2', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:11:13', '2023-02-25 17:41:13', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass-2.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1818, 1, '2023-02-25 23:11:29', '2023-02-25 17:41:29', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>glass </em>refers to materials, usually blends of metallic oxides, mainly silica, which do not crystallize when cooled from the liquid to the solid state. It is the non-crystalline or amorphous structure of glass that gives rise to its transparency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1810,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Glass.png\" alt=\"Glass\" class=\"wp-image-1810\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass made from sand, lime, and soda ash has been known in Egypt for 5000 years. For many centuries glass was worked by drawing the molten material from a furnace. The glass was then rolled out or pressed into appropriate moulds and finally shaped by cutting and grinding.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Adding different metallic compounds to the melt, various coloured glasses can be manufactured. The blue colour was obtained by the addition of cobalt. Copper gives blue or red and iron or chromium produced green. In the fifteenth century, white opaque glass was produced by the addition of tin or arsenic. In the seventeenth century, ruby-red glass was made with the addition of gold chloride. Clear glass could be obtained by using antimony or manganese as a de-colourizer to remove the green colouration caused by iron impurities within the sand.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the late twentieth century, with the advent of fully glazed facades, the construction industry has become a major consumer of new glass. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>MANUFACTURE</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Soda lime silicate glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Modern glass is manufactured from sand (silica), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone (calcium carbonate), with small additions of salt cake (calcium sulfate) and dolomite (magnesium limestone). This gives a final composition of typically 70–74% silica, 12–16% sodium oxide, 5–12% calcium oxide, and 2–5% magnesium oxide with small quantities of aluminium, iron, and potassium oxides. The addition of 25% broken glass or <em>cullet </em>to the furnace mix accelerates the melting process and recycles the production waste. The production process is relatively energy intensive at 15,000 kWh/m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alkaline earth silicate, borosilicate, and ceramic glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Alkaline earth silicate and borosilicate glasses are also used in the construction field. These have considerably different chemical compositions, and, give their particular physical properties. The composition of alkaline earth silicate glass is typically 55–70% silica, 5–14% potassium oxide, 3–12% calcium oxide, and 0–15% aluminium oxide, with quantities of zirconium, strontium, and barium oxides.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Borosilicate glass is typically 70–87% silica, 0–8% sodium oxide, 0–8% potassium oxide, 7–15% boron oxide, and 0–8% aluminium oxide, with small quantities of other oxides. A particular characteristic of borosilicate glass is that it has a coefficient of expansion of one-third that of standard soda lime silicate glass. This property makes it considerably more resistant to thermal shock in case of fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass-ceramics have a zero coefficient of expansion. It makes them highly resistant to thermal shock. The composition of glass ceramics is complex comprising typically 50–80% silica, and 15–27% alumina, with small quantities of sodium oxide, potassium oxide, barium oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, zinc oxide, lithium oxide, and other minor constituents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The glass is initially produced by a standard float or rolling technique, but subsequent heat treatment converts part of the normal glassy phase into a fine-grained crystalline form, giving rise to particular physical properties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FORMING PROCESSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Early methods</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initially, crown glass was formed by spinning a 4 kg cylindrical gob of molten glass on the end of a blowpipe. The solid glass was blown, flattened out, and then transferred to a solid iron rod<em>. </em>After reheating it was spun until it opened out into a 1.5 m diameter disc. The process involved considerable wastage including the bullion in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An alternative process involved the blowing of a glass cylinder which was then split open and flattened out in a kiln. Subsequently, in a major development, circular metal bait was lowered into a pot of molten glass and withdrawn slowly, dragging up a cylindrical ribbon of glass 13 m high, the diameter of the cylinder being maintained with compressed air. The completed cylinder was then detached, opened up, and flattened out to produce flat window glass.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the development of the Fourcault process in Belgium and the Colburn process in America that it became possible to produce flat glass directly. A straight bait was drawn vertically out of the molten glass to produce a ribbon of glass, which was then drawn directly up a tower, or in the Colburn process turned horizontally, through a series of rollers; finally, appropriate lengths were cut off. However, such drawn sheet glass suffered from manufacturing distortions. This problem was overcome by the production of plate glass, which involved horizontal casting and rolling, followed by grinding to remove distortions and polishing to give a clear, transparent but expensive product. The plate glass manufacturing process is now practically obsolete. It has been replaced by the <em>float process.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FLOAT GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1811,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/FLOAT-GLASS-1024x339.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1811\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A furnace produces a continuous supply of molten glass at approximately 1100°C, which flows across the surface of a large shallow bath of molten tin contained within an atmosphere of hydrogen and nitrogen (this prevents oxidation of the surface of the molten metal). The glass ribbon moves across the molten metal, initially at a sufficiently high temperature for the irregularities on both surfaces to become evened out leaving a flat and parallel ribbon of glass. The temperature of the glass is gradually reduced as it moves forward until, at the end of the molten tin, it is sufficiently solid at 600°C not to be distorted when supported on rollers. Thickness is controlled by the speed at which the glass is drawn from the bath. Any residual stresses are removed as the glass passes through the 200 m annealing lehr or furnace, leaving a fire-polished material. Then, the glass is washed, and substandard material is discarded for recycling. The computer-controlled cutting, firstly across the ribbon, then the removal of the edges, is followed by stacking, warehousing, and dispatch.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Float glass for the construction industry is made within the thickness range of 2–25 mm, although 0.5 mm is available for the electronics industry. Many surface-modified glasses are produced by incorporating metal ions into the glass within the float process. Body-tinted glass, which is of uniform colour, is manufactured by blending additional metal oxides into the standard melt.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>NON-SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass fibres</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Continuous filament</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Continuous glass fibres are manufactured by constantly feeding molten glass from a furnace into a forehearth fitted with 1600 accurately manufactured holes. Molten glass is drawn through these holes, at a rate of several thousand metres per second. The fibres are as small as 9 microns in diameter. They pass over a size applicator and are gathered together as a bundle before to being wound up on a collet. The material may then be used as rovings, chopped strand, or woven strand mats for the production of glass-fibre reinforced materials such as GRP (glass-fibre reinforced polyester), GRC (glass-fibre reinforced cement), or GRG (glass-fibre reinforced gypsum).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass wool</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass wool is used as an insulation material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Cast glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass may be cast and pressed into shape for glass blocks and extruded sections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Profiled sections</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Profile trough sections in clear or colored 6 or 7 mm cast glass are manufactured in sizes ranging from 232 to 498 mm wide, 41 and 60 mm deep, and up to 7 m long, with or without stainless steel longitudinal wires. The system can be used horizontally or vertically, as single or double glazing, and as a roofing system spanning up to 3 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1812,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Profiled-sections.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1812\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A large radius curve is possible as well as the normal straight butt jointed system. The joints are sealed with a one-part translucent silicone.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Amber or blue-tinted versions are available for solar control or aesthetic reasons. The double-glazed system produces a sound reduction within the 100–3200 Hz range of typically 40 dB.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The incorporation of 16-mm-thick translucent aerogel-insulated polycarbonate panels into profiled trough sections significantly increases the thermal insulating properties of the units. Airborne sound insulation is enhanced. Light transmission through the translucent aerogel panels is approximately 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass blocks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks for non-load-bearing walls and partitions are manufactured by casting two half blocks at 1050°C, joining them together at 800°C, followed by annealing at 560°C. The void space is partially evacuated. The standard blocks are 115, 190, 240, and 300 mm square with thicknesses of 80 and 100 mm, although rectangular and circular blocks are also available. The variety of patterns offering differing degrees of privacy includes clear, frosted, and crystal designs with colours from blue, green, and grey to pink and gold. For exterior and fire-retarding applications natural or coloured mortar (2 parts Portland cement, 1 part lime, 8 parts sand) is used for the jointing. Walls may be straight or curved. Bullet-proof blocks are available for higher security situations. For interior use, blocks can be laid with sealant rather than mortar.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks jointed with mortar give a fire resistance of 30 or 60 minutes of stability and integrity but not insulation. Fire stop blocks (F-30) manufactured from 26 mm rather than 8 mm glass offer increased fire protection of two hours’ integrity and 30 minutes’ thermal insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard float glass sizes</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The standard thicknesses for float glass are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19, and 25 mm to maximum sheet sizes of 3 to 12 m. Thicker grades are available in smaller sheet sizes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Traditional blown and drawn glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditional blown and drawn glasses are available commercially both clear and in a wide range of colours. Drawn glass up to 1600 - 1200 mm is optically clear but varies in thickness from 3 to 5 mm. It is normally used for conservation work where old glass requires replacement. The blown glass contains variable quantities of air bubbles. Also, it has significant variations in thickness giving an antique appearance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Curved sheet glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curved glass can be manufactured by heating annealed glass to approximately 600°C when it softens and sag-bends to the shape of the supporting mould. Sheets up to 3 m - 4 m can be bent with curvature in either one or two directions. Bent glass can subsequently be sandblasted, toughened, or laminated, even incorporating coloured interlayers if required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Self-cleaning glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Self-cleaning glass has an invisible hard coating of 15 microns thick. These coatings include two special features. The surface incorporating titanium dioxide is photocatalytic. It absorbs ultraviolet light, which with oxygen from the air breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. Furthermore, the surface is hydrophilic. It causes rainwater to spread evenly over the surface, rather than running down in droplets. Therefore, the surface is uniformly washed and prevents any unsightly streaks or spots from appearing when the surface dries. Self-cleaning glass has a somewhat greater mirror effect than ordinary float glass, with a faint blue tint. It is available as normal annealed glass also in toughened or laminated form. The surface coating, which reduces the transmittance of the glass by about 5%, is tough but as with any glass can be damaged by scratching. A blue solar control version reduces the solar heat gain by approximately 60% depending upon the thickness of the glass used and its combination in a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Clear white glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard float glass is somewhat greener due to the effect of iron oxide impurities in the key raw material sand. However, clear white glass can be produced, at a greater cost, by using purified ingredients. The light transmittance of clear white glass is approximately 2% greater than standard glass for 4 and 6 mm glazing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Embossed pattern glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wide range of 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm patterned glass is commercially available. The degree of privacy afforded by the various glasses is not only dependent upon the pattern but also upon the relative lighting levels on either side and the proximity of any object to the glass. Patterned glasses may be toughened, laminated, or incorporated into double-glazing units for thermal, acoustic, or safety considerations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Screen printed glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>White or coloured ceramic frit is screen printed onto clear or tinted float glass. It is then toughened and heat soaked, causing the ceramic enamel to fuse permanently into the glass surface. Standard patterns or individual designs may be created, giving the required level of solar transmission and privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Decorative etched and sandblasted glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acid etched glass, 4 mm and 6 mm in thickness, is available to a maximum sheet size of 2140 – 1320 mm with a small range of patterns. Etched glasses need to be handled carefully on-site, as oil, grease, and finger marks are difficult to remove completely. Similar visual effects can be achieved by sandblasting techniques, but it gives the surface finish less smooth. Patterns may be clear on a frosted background or the reverse, depending upon the aesthetic effect and level of privacy required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Georgian wired glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Georgian wired glass is produced by rolling a sandwich of a 13 mm electrically welded steel wire mesh between two ribbons of molten glass. This produces the standard cast 7 mm sheet, suitable when obscuration is required. Wired glass is not stronger than the equivalent thickness of annealed glass. However, when cracked, the pieces remain held together. On exposure to fire, the wire mesh dissipates some heat, but ultimately Georgian glass will crack, particularly if sprayed with water when hot. Accidental damage may cause the breakage of the glass. But again it is retained in position by the mesh, at least until the wires are affected by corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Toughened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass is up to four or five times stronger than standard annealed glass of the same thickness. It is produced by subjecting preheated annealed glass at 650°C to rapid surface cooling by the application of jets of air. This causes the outer faces to be set in compression with balancing tension forces within the centre of the glass. As cracking within glass commences with tensile failure at the surface, much greater force can be withstood before this critical point is reached. Toughened glass cannot be cut or worked. Therefore all necessary cutting, drilling of holes, and grinding or polishing of edges must be completed in advance of the toughening process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass will withstand considerable extremes of temperature and sudden shock temperatures. When broken, it shatters into small granules. This is not likely to cause serious injuries related to the accidental breakage of annealed glass. Any standard float, coated, roughcast, and patterned glasses can be toughened.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Heat-strengthened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heat-strengthened glass is manufactured by a similar process to toughening, but with a slower rate of cooling which produces only half the strength of toughened glass. On severe impact, heat-strengthened glass breaks into large pieces like annealed glass. Therefore it cannot be considered a safety glass. Heat-strengthened glass is frequently used in laminated glass where the residual strength after fracture gives some integrity to the laminate. Typical applications include locations where resistance to wind pressure is necessary, such as the upper storeys and corners of high buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Laminated glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Laminated glass is produced by bonding two or more layers of glass together with a plastic interlayer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) sheet or a polymethyl methacrylate low-viscosity resin. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1817,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass-2-585x1024.png\" alt=\"Anti bandit glass\" class=\"wp-image-1817\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The lamination process increases the impact resistance compared to annealed glass of the same thickness. Furthermore on impact, whilst the glass laminations crack, they do so without splintering or disintegration, being held together by the interlayer. Therefore, laminated glass can be defined as <em>safety glass</em>. The impact resistance of laminated glass may be increased using thicker interlayers or increasing the number of laminates or the inclusion of polycarbonate sheets. Typically, anti-bandit glass has two or three glass laminates while, depending on the anticipated caliber and muzzle velocity,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>bullet-resistant glass has four or more glass laminates. To prevent spalling, the rear face of bullet-resistant glass may be sealed with a scratch-resistant polyester film and for fire protection</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Insulating glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insulating glasses are manufactured from float glass laminated with either intumescent or gel materials. Intumescent laminated glass has clear interlayers. When exposed to fire, intumescent or gel materials expand to a white opaque material, preventing the passage of conductive and radiant heat. The glass layers adjacent to the fire crack but retain integrity owing to their adhesion with the interlayers. The fire resistance, ranging between 30 and 120 minutes for insulation and integrity, depends on the number of laminations, usually between 3 and 5.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1816,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass.png\" alt=\"Laminated glass\" class=\"wp-image-1816\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Fire-resistant glass with intumescent material laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SPECIAL GLASSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>One-way observation glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where unobserved surveillance is required, one-way observation mirror glass can be installed. To maintain privacy, the observer must be at an illumination level no greater than one-seventh that of the observed area and wear dark clothing. From the observed area, the one-way observation glass has the appearance of a normal mirror. One-way observation glass is available in annealed, toughened, or laminated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mirror glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard mirror glass is manufactured by the chemical deposition onto float glass of a thin film of silver, from aqueous silver and copper salt solutions. The film is then protected with two coats of paint or a plastic layer. Mirror glass is produced by the online application of a three-layer coating of silicon-silica-silicon, which acts by optical interference to give the mirror effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alarm glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;</strong>Glass containing either a ceramic loop or a series of straight wires can be incorporated into an intruder alarm system, which is activated when the glass is broken. Usually, straight-wired alarm glass is incorporated into a laminated system, while a ceramic loop circuit would be fixed to the inner face of the toughened outer pane within a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electrically-heatable laminated safety glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It incorporates fine electrically conducting wires which may be switched on when there is a risk of condensation. Typical applications are in areas of high humidity, such as swimming pools, kitchens, and glass roofs, particularly when there are significant differences between the internal and external temperatures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electromagnetic radiation-shielding glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Itcan be used to protect building zones containing magnetically stored data from accidental or deliberate corruption by external electric fields. For maximum security, the conducting laminates within the composite glass should be in full peripheral electrical contact with the metal window frames and the surrounding wall surface screening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>X-ray protection glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It contains 70% lead oxide, which produces significant shielding against ionizing radiation. The glass is amber in colour due to the high lead content. A 6 mm sheet of this lead glass has the equivalent shielding effect of a 2 mm lead sheet against radiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Variable transmission (smart) glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variable transmission or <em>smart </em>glasses change their optical and thermal characteristics under the influence of light (photochromic), heat (thermochromic), or electric potential (electrochromic). These glasses offer the potential of highly responsive dynamic climate control to building facades. These smart materials including thermotropic products are also available as plastic laminates for incorporation into laminated glass systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electro-optic laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Electrically operated vision-control glass consists of a laminated system of glass and polyvinyl butyral layers containing a polymer-dispersed liquid crystal layer, which can be electrically switched from transparent to white/translucent for privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional glass coatings reduce both light and heat transmission. However, a coating based on tungsten-modified vanadium dioxide allows visible light through at all times but reflects infrared radiation at temperatures above 29°C. Thus, at this temperature, further heat penetration through the glass is blocked. Therefore the intelligent glass, which has a slight yellow/green colour, admits useful solar gain in cooler conditions but cuts out excessive infrared solar gain under hot conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass facades</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An intelligent glass building facade changes its physical properties, in response to sensors detecting the external light and weather conditions, thus reducing the energy consumption necessary to maintain the appropriate internal environment. Therefore intelligent facades have ecological significance in reducing global greenhouse emissions and also in reducing operational building costs to clients and users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>STRUCTURAL GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass columns are frequently used as fins to restrain excessive deflection caused by wind and other lateral loads to glass facades. The fixings between the façade glazing and fin units are usually stainless steel clamps bolted through preformed holes in the toughened or laminated glass, although silicone adhesives can also be used. A soft interlayer between the metal fixing and the glass is incorporated to prevent stress concentrations on the glass surface and to allow for differential thermal movement between the glass and metal. Glass is strong in compression and therefore an appropriate material for load-bearing columns and walls, providing that the design ensures sufficient strength, stiffness, and stability. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Glass - as construction material', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1809-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:11:29', '2023-02-25 17:41:29', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1818', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1637, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-08-28 17:15:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1637', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1637/', 18, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1638, 1, '2021-08-28 22:52:52', '2021-08-28 17:22:52', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works. It may be in the form of an addition, modification, or omission. This provision may permit the omission of works to an unlimited degree. If so, it allows the client or his agent to omit most of the works, agreed upon originally. Then the question arises whether it is possible legally, or law places any limit on what may be omitted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another important matter is, although the contract provisions empower the employer or the contract administrator to omit part of the work agreed originally, it does not give the right to omit with the object of giving omitted works to another contractor. For example, the employer cannot employ another contractor to do the omitted work at a lesser rate than in the original contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The correct practice would be to omit only when the employer does not expect to have the omitted work done at all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Abbey Development v PP&nbsp;Brickwork&nbsp;(2003)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant, <em>Abbey Developments Limited</em> engaged the defendant <em>PP Brickwork Ltd</em> as a labour-only subcontractor for brickwork and blockwork for the development of an estate of 69 houses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case was initiated to clarify whether the claimant was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which the defendant had agreed to carry out.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant was invited to submit a tender by a letter of invitation dated 25<sup>th</sup> September 2000. Part of the invitation letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"For your information and guidance, we wish to advise the Site comprises of a total of 69 No. units and their respective Garages, and at present, it is envisaged that the construction program will last approximately 18 months.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"However, Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to vary the number of units and the construction program without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to a claim from the sub-contractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The letter of invitation further said;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to renegotiate rates or suspend the Contract and retender the works without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to any claim from the subcontractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tender was duly submitted on 6th November. It was for a sum of £484,000. It was accompanied by a tender summary, which the tenderer had been required by the claimant to complete. The prices for each of the house types and the numbers of the prospective house types were all set out, together with those for the various types of garage.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 21 December 2000, the claimant sent its subcontract order to the defendant, which was accepted forming the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract contained the usual standard provision for variations, including omissions, which would not vitiate the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some months later, after starting construction in 2001, the claimant had to write to the defendant complaining of various matters which is required to be put right.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>And then, in October, the claimant wrote to the defendant saying that it was considering determining the defendant\'s contract according to clauses 6 to 13 of the General Conditions because of failure to supply sufficient labour. That drew a reply from the defendant saying there had been labour. There was an answer to that saying they were merely considering it and not going to take the matter, at that stage, any further. And these continued, further complaining about health and safety matters. Ultimately, on 12th December, the claimant wrote complaining about insufficient supervision. It was also critical of the workmanship.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the above reasons, finally, the claimant terminated the contract. Part of the termination letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"... I am informed by our Construction Department that still you are failing to provide labour in sufficient numbers and quality to maintain our build programme.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Therefore, we must now inform you that we are </em><em>limiting your works to those plots that you currently have under construction.</em><em> Following the satisfactory completion of these plots, your contract will be determined in accordance with our standard terms and conditions.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"</em><em>An alternative contractor will be employed to complete the development and any additional costs to this company which result will be charged to your account</em><em>.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The additional charges of the claimant have been quantified as £8,000.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This was followed by an adjudication procedure. On 12 February 2003 the adjudicator, decided that the claimant was in repudiatory breach of contract in deciding to limit the scope of the work and that the defendant was entitled to damages of £59,727.71 plus interest and 50% of the adjudicator\'s fees and expenses. He concluded that the termination letter constituted a repudiatory breach of contract by the claimant, entitling the defendant to damages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant went to the courts seeking a declaration as to whether Abbey was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which PP Brickwork had agreed to carry out. There was also an application by the defendant for the enforcement of the decision of the adjudicator which was in his favor.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant\'s declarations, if granted, would mean the dispute that led to the adjudication would be resolved in favor of the claimant and the adjudicator\'s decision would then be unenforceable. If the claimant were to fail in its entirety on the application, then the adjudicator\'s decision would be enforceable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court refused Abbey’s application, holding that under the proper construction of the subcontract, Abbey was not entitled to reduce the quantity of the works by removing all plots upon which PP Brickwork had not yet started work. The Judge determined that a convenience or omissions clause required reasonably clear words to allow an employer to transfer work from one contractor to another. The subcontract provisions allowing the variation of the quantity of work lacked clarity to allow Abbey to behave as it did.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, Abbey was in breach of the subcontract by engaging an alternative contractor to carry out the work which had been removed from the scope of the subcontract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If a Client wants the ability to reallocate work, then the contract must be clear and specific in this regard.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Abbey Developments, the contract permitted the omission of work where that work was no longer required for the project. The Client sought to omit work from the contractor because he was dissatisfied with the contractor’s performance, and give this work to another contractor. The court said that reallocation was a breach of contract because the wording only provided for the omission of work in certain circumstances (where the work was no longer required).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Omissions', 'Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'omissions', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:35:21', '2021-08-29 02:05:21', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1638', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1639, 1, '2021-08-28 22:52:12', '2021-08-28 17:22:12', '', 'judge-hammer-judgement-1587300', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'judge-hammer-judgement-1587300', '', '', '2021-08-28 22:52:12', '2021-08-28 17:22:12', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/judge-hammer-judgement-1587300.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
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(1640, 1, '2021-08-28 22:52:52', '2021-08-28 17:22:52', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works. It may be in the form of an addition, modification, or omission. This provision may permit the omission of works to an unlimited degree. If so, it allows the client or his agent to omit most of the works, agreed upon originally. Then the question arises whether it is possible legally, or law places any limit on what may be omitted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another important matter is, although the contract provisions empower the employer or the contract administrator to omit part of the work agreed originally, it does not give the right to omit with the object of giving omitted works to another contractor. For example, the employer cannot employ another contractor to do the omitted work at a lesser rate than in the original contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The correct practice would be to omit only when the employer does not expect to have the omitted work done at all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Abbey Development v PP&nbsp;Brickwork&nbsp;(2003)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant, <em>Abbey Developments Limited</em> engaged the defendant <em>PP Brickwork Ltd</em> as a labour-only subcontractor for brickwork and blockwork for the development of an estate of 69 houses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case was initiated to clarify whether the claimant was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which the defendant had agreed to carry out.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant was invited to submit a tender by a letter of invitation dated 25<sup>th</sup> September 2000. Part of the invitation letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"For your information and guidance, we wish to advise the Site comprises of a total of 69 No. units and their respective Garages, and at present, it is envisaged that the construction program will last approximately 18 months.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"However, Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to vary the number of units and the construction program without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to a claim from the sub-contractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The letter of invitation further said;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to renegotiate rates or suspend the Contract and retender the works without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to any claim from the subcontractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tender was duly submitted on 6th November. It was for a sum of £484,000. It was accompanied by a tender summary, which the tenderer had been required by the claimant to complete. The prices for each of the house types and the numbers of the prospective house types were all set out, together with those for the various types of garage.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 21 December 2000, the claimant sent its subcontract order to the defendant, which was accepted forming the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract contained the usual standard provision for variations, including omissions, which would not vitiate the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some months later, after starting construction in 2001, the claimant had to write to the defendant complaining of various matters which is required to be put right.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>And then, in October, the claimant wrote to the defendant saying that it was considering determining the defendant\'s contract according to clauses 6 to 13 of the General Conditions because of failure to supply sufficient labour. That drew a reply from the defendant saying there had been labour. There was an answer to that saying they were merely considering it and not going to take the matter, at that stage, any further. And these continued, further complaining about health and safety matters. Ultimately, on 12th December, the claimant wrote complaining about insufficient supervision. It was also critical of the workmanship.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the above reasons, finally, the claimant terminated the contract. Part of the termination letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"... I am informed by our Construction Department that still you are failing to provide labour in sufficient numbers and quality to maintain our build programme.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Therefore, we must now inform you that we are </em><em>limiting your works to those plots that you currently have under construction.</em><em> Following the satisfactory completion of these plots, your contract will be determined in accordance with our standard terms and conditions.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"</em><em>An alternative contractor will be employed to complete the development and any additional costs to this company which result will be charged to your account</em><em>.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The additional charges of the claimant have been quantified as £8,000.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This was followed by an adjudication procedure. On 12 February 2003 the adjudicator, decided that the claimant was in repudiatory breach of contract in deciding to limit the scope of the work and that the defendant was entitled to damages of £59,727.71 plus interest and 50% of the adjudicator\'s fees and expenses. He concluded that the termination letter constituted a repudiatory breach of contract by the claimant, entitling the defendant to damages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant went to the courts seeking a declaration as to whether Abbey was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which PP Brickwork had agreed to carry out. There was also an application by the defendant for the enforcement of the decision of the adjudicator which was in his favor. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant\'s declarations, if granted, would mean the dispute that led to the adjudication would be resolved in favor of the claimant and the adjudicator\'s decision would then be unenforceable. If the claimant were to fail in its entirety on the application, then the adjudicator\'s decision would be enforceable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court refused Abbey’s application, holding that under the proper construction of the subcontract, Abbey was not entitled to reduce the quantity of the works by removing all plots upon which PP Brickwork had not yet started work. The Judge determined that a convenience or omissions clause required reasonably clear words to allow an employer to transfer work from one contractor to another. The subcontract provisions allowing the variation of the quantity of work lacked clarity to allow Abbey to behave as it did.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, Abbey was in breach of the subcontract by engaging an alternative contractor to carry out the work which had been removed from the scope of the subcontract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If a Client wants the ability to reallocate work, then the contract must be clear and specific in this regard.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Abbey Developments, the contract permitted the omission of work where that work was no longer required for the project. The Client sought to omit work from the contractor because he was dissatisfied with the contractor’s performance, and give this work to another contractor. The court said that reallocation was a breach of contract because the wording only provided for the omission of work in certain circumstances (where the work was no longer required).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Omissions', 'Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1638-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-28 22:52:52', '2021-08-28 17:22:52', '', 1638, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1640', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1815, 1, '2023-02-25 23:08:50', '2023-02-25 17:38:50', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>glass </em>refers to materials, usually blends of metallic oxides, mainly silica, which do not crystallize when cooled from the liquid to the solid state. It is the non-crystalline or amorphous structure of glass that gives rise to its transparency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1810,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Glass.png\" alt=\"Glass\" class=\"wp-image-1810\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass made from sand, lime, and soda ash has been known in Egypt for 5000 years. For many centuries glass was worked by drawing the molten material from a furnace. The glass was then rolled out or pressed into appropriate moulds and finally shaped by cutting and grinding.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Adding different metallic compounds to the melt, various coloured glasses can be manufactured. The blue colour was obtained by the addition of cobalt. Copper gives blue or red and iron or chromium produced green. In the fifteenth century, white opaque glass was produced by the addition of tin or arsenic. In the seventeenth century, ruby-red glass was made with the addition of gold chloride. Clear glass could be obtained by using antimony or manganese as a de-colourizer to remove the green colouration caused by iron impurities within the sand.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the late twentieth century, with the advent of fully glazed facades, the construction industry has become a major consumer of new glass. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>MANUFACTURE</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Soda lime silicate glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Modern glass is manufactured from sand (silica), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone (calcium carbonate), with small additions of salt cake (calcium sulfate) and dolomite (magnesium limestone). This gives a final composition of typically 70–74% silica, 12–16% sodium oxide, 5–12% calcium oxide, and 2–5% magnesium oxide with small quantities of aluminium, iron, and potassium oxides. The addition of 25% broken glass or <em>cullet </em>to the furnace mix accelerates the melting process and recycles the production waste. The production process is relatively energy intensive at 15,000 kWh/m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alkaline earth silicate, borosilicate, and ceramic glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Alkaline earth silicate and borosilicate glasses are also used in the construction field. These have considerably different chemical compositions, and, give their particular physical properties. The composition of alkaline earth silicate glass is typically 55–70% silica, 5–14% potassium oxide, 3–12% calcium oxide, and 0–15% aluminium oxide, with quantities of zirconium, strontium, and barium oxides.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Borosilicate glass is typically 70–87% silica, 0–8% sodium oxide, 0–8% potassium oxide, 7–15% boron oxide, and 0–8% aluminium oxide, with small quantities of other oxides. A particular characteristic of borosilicate glass is that it has a coefficient of expansion of one-third that of standard soda lime silicate glass. This property makes it considerably more resistant to thermal shock in case of fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass-ceramics have a zero coefficient of expansion. It makes them highly resistant to thermal shock. The composition of glass ceramics is complex comprising typically 50–80% silica, and 15–27% alumina, with small quantities of sodium oxide, potassium oxide, barium oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, zinc oxide, lithium oxide, and other minor constituents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The glass is initially produced by a standard float or rolling technique, but subsequent heat treatment converts part of the normal glassy phase into a fine-grained crystalline form, giving rise to particular physical properties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FORMING PROCESSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Early methods</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initially, crown glass was formed by spinning a 4 kg cylindrical gob of molten glass on the end of a blowpipe. The solid glass was blown, flattened out, and then transferred to a solid iron rod<em>. </em>After reheating it was spun until it opened out into a 1.5 m diameter disc. The process involved considerable wastage including the bullion in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An alternative process involved the blowing of a glass cylinder which was then split open and flattened out in a kiln. Subsequently, in a major development, circular metal bait was lowered into a pot of molten glass and withdrawn slowly, dragging up a cylindrical ribbon of glass 13 m high, the diameter of the cylinder being maintained with compressed air. The completed cylinder was then detached, opened up, and flattened out to produce flat window glass.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the development of the Fourcault process in Belgium and the Colburn process in America that it became possible to produce flat glass directly. A straight bait was drawn vertically out of the molten glass to produce a ribbon of glass, which was then drawn directly up a tower, or in the Colburn process turned horizontally, through a series of rollers; finally, appropriate lengths were cut off. However, such drawn sheet glass suffered from manufacturing distortions. This problem was overcome by the production of plate glass, which involved horizontal casting and rolling, followed by grinding to remove distortions and polishing to give a clear, transparent but expensive product. The plate glass manufacturing process is now practically obsolete. It has been replaced by the <em>float process.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FLOAT GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1811,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/FLOAT-GLASS-1024x339.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1811\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A furnace produces a continuous supply of molten glass at approximately 1100°C, which flows across the surface of a large shallow bath of molten tin contained within an atmosphere of hydrogen and nitrogen (this prevents oxidation of the surface of the molten metal). The glass ribbon moves across the molten metal, initially at a sufficiently high temperature for the irregularities on both surfaces to become evened out leaving a flat and parallel ribbon of glass. The temperature of the glass is gradually reduced as it moves forward until, at the end of the molten tin, it is sufficiently solid at 600°C not to be distorted when supported on rollers. Thickness is controlled by the speed at which the glass is drawn from the bath. Any residual stresses are removed as the glass passes through the 200 m annealing lehr or furnace, leaving a fire-polished material. Then, the glass is washed, and substandard material is discarded for recycling. The computer-controlled cutting, firstly across the ribbon, then the removal of the edges, is followed by stacking, warehousing, and dispatch.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Float glass for the construction industry is made within the thickness range of 2–25 mm, although 0.5 mm is available for the electronics industry. Many surface-modified glasses are produced by incorporating metal ions into the glass within the float process. Body-tinted glass, which is of uniform colour, is manufactured by blending additional metal oxides into the standard melt.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>NON-SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass fibres</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Continuous filament</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Continuous glass fibres are manufactured by constantly feeding molten glass from a furnace into a forehearth fitted with 1600 accurately manufactured holes. Molten glass is drawn through these holes, at a rate of several thousand metres per second. The fibres are as small as 9 microns in diameter. They pass over a size applicator and are gathered together as a bundle before to being wound up on a collet. The material may then be used as rovings, chopped strand, or woven strand mats for the production of glass-fibre reinforced materials such as GRP (glass-fibre reinforced polyester), GRC (glass-fibre reinforced cement), or GRG (glass-fibre reinforced gypsum).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass wool</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass wool is used as an insulation material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Cast glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass may be cast and pressed into shape for glass blocks and extruded sections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Profiled sections</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Profile trough sections in clear or colored 6 or 7 mm cast glass are manufactured in sizes ranging from 232 to 498 mm wide, 41 and 60 mm deep, and up to 7 m long, with or without stainless steel longitudinal wires. The system can be used horizontally or vertically, as single or double glazing, and as a roofing system spanning up to 3 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1812,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Profiled-sections.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1812\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A large radius curve is possible as well as the normal straight butt jointed system. The joints are sealed with a one-part translucent silicone.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Amber or blue-tinted versions are available for solar control or aesthetic reasons. The double-glazed system produces a sound reduction within the 100–3200 Hz range of typically 40 dB.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The incorporation of 16-mm-thick translucent aerogel-insulated polycarbonate panels into profiled trough sections significantly increases the thermal insulating properties of the units. Airborne sound insulation is enhanced. Light transmission through the translucent aerogel panels is approximately 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass blocks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks for non-load-bearing walls and partitions are manufactured by casting two half blocks at 1050°C, joining them together at 800°C, followed by annealing at 560°C. The void space is partially evacuated. The standard blocks are 115, 190, 240, and 300 mm square with thicknesses of 80 and 100 mm, although rectangular and circular blocks are also available. The variety of patterns offering differing degrees of privacy includes clear, frosted, and crystal designs with colours from blue, green, and grey to pink and gold. For exterior and fire-retarding applications natural or coloured mortar (2 parts Portland cement, 1 part lime, 8 parts sand) is used for the jointing. Walls may be straight or curved. Bullet-proof blocks are available for higher security situations. For interior use, blocks can be laid with sealant rather than mortar.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks jointed with mortar give a fire resistance of 30 or 60 minutes of stability and integrity but not insulation. Fire stop blocks (F-30) manufactured from 26 mm rather than 8 mm glass offer increased fire protection of two hours’ integrity and 30 minutes’ thermal insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard float glass sizes</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The standard thicknesses for float glass are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19, and 25 mm to maximum sheet sizes of 3 to 12 m. Thicker grades are available in smaller sheet sizes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Traditional blown and drawn glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditional blown and drawn glasses are available commercially both clear and in a wide range of colours. Drawn glass up to 1600 - 1200 mm is optically clear but varies in thickness from 3 to 5 mm. It is normally used for conservation work where old glass requires replacement. The blown glass contains variable quantities of air bubbles. Also, it has significant variations in thickness giving an antique appearance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Curved sheet glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curved glass can be manufactured by heating annealed glass to approximately 600°C when it softens and sag-bends to the shape of the supporting mould. Sheets up to 3 m - 4 m can be bent with curvature in either one or two directions. Bent glass can subsequently be sandblasted, toughened, or laminated, even incorporating coloured interlayers if required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Self-cleaning glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Self-cleaning glass has an invisible hard coating of 15 microns thick. These coatings include two special features. The surface incorporating titanium dioxide is photocatalytic. It absorbs ultraviolet light, which with oxygen from the air breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. Furthermore, the surface is hydrophilic. It causes rainwater to spread evenly over the surface, rather than running down in droplets. Therefore, the surface is uniformly washed and prevents any unsightly streaks or spots from appearing when the surface dries. Self-cleaning glass has a somewhat greater mirror effect than ordinary float glass, with a faint blue tint. It is available as normal annealed glass also in toughened or laminated form. The surface coating, which reduces the transmittance of the glass by about 5%, is tough but as with any glass can be damaged by scratching. A blue solar control version reduces the solar heat gain by approximately 60% depending upon the thickness of the glass used and its combination in a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Clear white glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard float glass is somewhat greener due to the effect of iron oxide impurities in the key raw material sand. However, clear white glass can be produced, at a greater cost, by using purified ingredients. The light transmittance of clear white glass is approximately 2% greater than standard glass for 4 and 6 mm glazing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Embossed pattern glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wide range of 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm patterned glass is commercially available. The degree of privacy afforded by the various glasses is not only dependent upon the pattern but also upon the relative lighting levels on either side and the proximity of any object to the glass. Patterned glasses may be toughened, laminated, or incorporated into double-glazing units for thermal, acoustic, or safety considerations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Screen printed glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>White or coloured ceramic frit is screen printed onto clear or tinted float glass. It is then toughened and heat soaked, causing the ceramic enamel to fuse permanently into the glass surface. Standard patterns or individual designs may be created, giving the required level of solar transmission and privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Decorative etched and sandblasted glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acid etched glass, 4 mm and 6 mm in thickness, is available to a maximum sheet size of 2140 – 1320 mm with a small range of patterns. Etched glasses need to be handled carefully on-site, as oil, grease, and finger marks are difficult to remove completely. Similar visual effects can be achieved by sandblasting techniques, but it gives the surface finish less smooth. Patterns may be clear on a frosted background or the reverse, depending upon the aesthetic effect and level of privacy required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Georgian wired glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Georgian wired glass is produced by rolling a sandwich of a 13 mm electrically welded steel wire mesh between two ribbons of molten glass. This produces the standard cast 7 mm sheet, suitable when obscuration is required. Wired glass is not stronger than the equivalent thickness of annealed glass. However, when cracked, the pieces remain held together. On exposure to fire, the wire mesh dissipates some heat, but ultimately Georgian glass will crack, particularly if sprayed with water when hot. Accidental damage may cause the breakage of the glass. But again it is retained in position by the mesh, at least until the wires are affected by corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Toughened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass is up to four or five times stronger than standard annealed glass of the same thickness. It is produced by subjecting preheated annealed glass at 650°C to rapid surface cooling by the application of jets of air. This causes the outer faces to be set in compression with balancing tension forces within the centre of the glass. As cracking within glass commences with tensile failure at the surface, much greater force can be withstood before this critical point is reached. Toughened glass cannot be cut or worked. Therefore all necessary cutting, drilling of holes, and grinding or polishing of edges must be completed in advance of the toughening process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass will withstand considerable extremes of temperature and sudden shock temperatures. When broken, it shatters into small granules. This is not likely to cause serious injuries related to the accidental breakage of annealed glass. Any standard float, coated, roughcast, and patterned glasses can be toughened.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Heat-strengthened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heat-strengthened glass is manufactured by a similar process to toughening, but with a slower rate of cooling which produces only half the strength of toughened glass. On severe impact, heat-strengthened glass breaks into large pieces like annealed glass. Therefore it cannot be considered a safety glass. Heat-strengthened glass is frequently used in laminated glass where the residual strength after fracture gives some integrity to the laminate. Typical applications include locations where resistance to wind pressure is necessary, such as the upper storeys and corners of high buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Laminated glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Laminated glass is produced by bonding two or more layers of glass together with a plastic interlayer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) sheet or a polymethyl methacrylate low-viscosity resin. The lamination process increases the impact resistance compared to annealed glass of the same thickness. Furthermore on impact, whilst the glass laminations crack, they do so without splintering or disintegration, being held together by the interlayer. Therefore, laminated glass can be defined as <em>safety glass</em>. The impact resistance of laminated glass may be increased using thicker interlayers or increasing the number of laminates or the inclusion of polycarbonate sheets. Typically, anti-bandit glass has two or three glass laminates while, depending on the anticipated caliber and muzzle velocity,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>bullet-resistant glass has four or more glass laminates. To prevent spalling, the rear face of bullet-resistant glass may be sealed with a scratch-resistant polyester film and for fire protection</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Insulating glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insulating glasses are manufactured from float glass laminated with either intumescent or gel materials. Intumescent laminated glass has clear interlayers. When exposed to fire, intumescent or gel materials expand to a white opaque material, preventing the passage of conductive and radiant heat. The glass layers adjacent to the fire crack but retain integrity owing to their adhesion with the interlayers. The fire resistance, ranging between 30 and 120 minutes for insulation and integrity, depends on the number of laminations, usually between 3 and 5.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Fire-resistant glass with intumescent material laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SPECIAL GLASSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>One-way observation glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where unobserved surveillance is required, one-way observation mirror glass can be installed. To maintain privacy, the observer must be at an illumination level no greater than one-seventh that of the observed area and wear dark clothing. From the observed area, the one-way observation glass has the appearance of a normal mirror. One-way observation glass is available in annealed, toughened, or laminated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mirror glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard mirror glass is manufactured by the chemical deposition onto float glass of a thin film of silver, from aqueous silver and copper salt solutions. The film is then protected with two coats of paint or a plastic layer. Mirror glass is produced by the online application of a three-layer coating of silicon-silica-silicon, which acts by optical interference to give the mirror effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alarm glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;</strong>Glass containing either a ceramic loop or a series of straight wires can be incorporated into an intruder alarm system, which is activated when the glass is broken. Usually, straight-wired alarm glass is incorporated into a laminated system, while a ceramic loop circuit would be fixed to the inner face of the toughened outer pane within a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electrically-heatable laminated safety glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It incorporates fine electrically conducting wires which may be switched on when there is a risk of condensation. Typical applications are in areas of high humidity, such as swimming pools, kitchens, and glass roofs, particularly when there are significant differences between the internal and external temperatures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electromagnetic radiation-shielding glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Itcan be used to protect building zones containing magnetically stored data from accidental or deliberate corruption by external electric fields. For maximum security, the conducting laminates within the composite glass should be in full peripheral electrical contact with the metal window frames and the surrounding wall surface screening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>X-ray protection glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It contains 70% lead oxide, which produces significant shielding against ionizing radiation. The glass is amber in colour due to the high lead content. A 6 mm sheet of this lead glass has the equivalent shielding effect of a 2 mm lead sheet against radiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Variable transmission (smart) glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variable transmission or <em>smart </em>glasses change their optical and thermal characteristics under the influence of light (photochromic), heat (thermochromic), or electric potential (electrochromic). These glasses offer the potential of highly responsive dynamic climate control to building facades. These smart materials including thermotropic products are also available as plastic laminates for incorporation into laminated glass systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electro-optic laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Electrically operated vision-control glass consists of a laminated system of glass and polyvinyl butyral layers containing a polymer-dispersed liquid crystal layer, which can be electrically switched from transparent to white/translucent for privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional glass coatings reduce both light and heat transmission. However, a coating based on tungsten-modified vanadium dioxide allows visible light through at all times but reflects infrared radiation at temperatures above 29°C. Thus, at this temperature, further heat penetration through the glass is blocked. Therefore the intelligent glass, which has a slight yellow/green colour, admits useful solar gain in cooler conditions but cuts out excessive infrared solar gain under hot conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass facades</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An intelligent glass building facade changes its physical properties, in response to sensors detecting the external light and weather conditions, thus reducing the energy consumption necessary to maintain the appropriate internal environment. Therefore intelligent facades have ecological significance in reducing global greenhouse emissions and also in reducing operational building costs to clients and users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>STRUCTURAL GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass columns are frequently used as fins to restrain excessive deflection caused by wind and other lateral loads to glass facades. The fixings between the façade glazing and fin units are usually stainless steel clamps bolted through preformed holes in the toughened or laminated glass, although silicone adhesives can also be used. A soft interlayer between the metal fixing and the glass is incorporated to prevent stress concentrations on the glass surface and to allow for differential thermal movement between the glass and metal. Glass is strong in compression and therefore an appropriate material for load-bearing columns and walls, providing that the design ensures sufficient strength, stiffness, and stability. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Glass - as construction material', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1809-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:08:50', '2023-02-25 17:38:50', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1815', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1642, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-08-28 17:23:27', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1642', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1642/', 19, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1643, 1, '2021-08-29 07:33:10', '2021-08-29 02:03:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To be a variation, there must be changes to what parties have agreed in the original contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, one has to carefully examine the original contract document, in which the description of the work and other obligations of the parties are mentioned, to clarify whether any work comes under variation or not.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Following case law gives understanding about whether any work item is included in the contract or else to be treated as a variation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Williams v Fitzmaurice (1858)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this case, a contractor - the plaintiff - agreed to build a house for the client - the defendant. He prepared a specification that included particulars of the different portions of the work. Under the section – Carpenter and Joinery – specification contained scantling of the joists for different floors, rafters, ridge, and wall pieces to be used. But, there was no mention of the floorboards to be used. The agreed price was £1,100.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wordings of the specification were as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"the whole of the materials mentioned or otherwise in the foregoing particulars, necessary for the completion of the work, must be provided by the contractor\".</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the foot of the specification, the plaintiff signed a memorandum. In that, the plaintiff has agreed with the defendant the following.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"to do all the work mentioned and contained in the foregoing particulars, according to in every respect to the drawings furnished or to be furnished, for the sum of </em>£<em>1,100”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per the contract, the house was to be completed and fit for the defendant\'s occupation by the 1st of August, 1858.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plaintiff refused to fix floorboards until paid extra, saying that they were not part of his contract. The defendant terminated the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court held that the plaintiff could not recover either the amount outstanding or the cost of the floorboards, which the defendant had seized upon taking over the site.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“not entitled to recover for the flooring as an extra, because it was included in the contract though not mentioned in the specification”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>According to the words used in the contract, it was inferred that flooring was necessary to complete the house.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, whether a particular work is a variation or not will depend on as long as it comes within the general scope of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some works, although not specifically described, are nevertheless considered as implied or form a necessary part of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Sharpe v San Paulo Railway Co (1873)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 8th February 1860, Robert Sharpe &amp; Sons – the plaintiff - signed a contract with the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Railway_Company\">San Paulo Railway Company</a> – the defendant - to build a railway line between&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos,_S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">Santos</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jundia%C3%AD\">Jundiahy</a>, via&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo\">São Paulo</a>, in Brazil, for the agreed sum of £1,745,000.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was a lump-sum contract to complete the whole railway line, with everything necessary completion, from the beginning to the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 1st October 1866, the railway line was completed, handed over to, and accepted by the company.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the engineer\'s original plans were inadequate for the construction, and vastly underestimated the amount of excavation required. Additional plans were provided. And the contractor had to carry out 2 million cubic yards of excavation over and above what they had initially anticipated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In 1871, the contractor attempted to sue San Paulo Railway to recover additional costs of £617,143 which they had incurred when the company\'s engineer had altered the plans from the original specification.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case reached the Court of Appeal in 1872 but was rejected.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The learned judge held that:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the amount of excavation was a thing the contractors ought to have looked at for themselves and made out their own calculations”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“if the contractors had disapproved of the new arrangements, they ought to have entered into a fresh contract with the company”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“The (plaintiff) says that the original specification was not sufficient to make a complete railway line and that it became obvious that something more would be required to be done to make the</em> <em>line. But their business, and what they had contracted to do for a lump sum, was to make the line from terminus to terminus complete. And both these items seem to me to be on the face of them entirely included in the contract. They are not in any sense of the word extra works”.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>“the works were not in any sense additional to the contractually required performance. Because of the wording of the contract, the additional work could not be described as extra works”.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It should be noted in this particular contract, the engineer\'s plans did not supersede the primary commitment to building the railway line.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there were differently worded commitment (e.g. \'build the railway in accordance with the engineer\'s plans\') would have given rise to the risk of insufficiency of the engineer\'s plans falling upon the employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All construction contract conditions comprise the provision for a written instruction or order for varied and/or extra work. Without those written instructions, the Contractor cannot recover nor get compensation for such additional works unless he can prove that there has been a new and succeeding contract for him to be paid for those extra works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This subsequent contract may be in the form of an oral agreement. Or it may be in the implied form from the conduct of the parties.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must show an agreement by the parties that the additional work was to be done and an agreement by the owner to pay for it or at least the owner must have benefited from the extra work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is suggested that the Contractors should at least put in writing any oral instruction or confirmation or agreement. These written confirmations must show the intention and conduct of the parties for such ‘extra work’. Then the contractor can provide those as prima facie evidence for claiming the additional payment for such extra work when a dispute arises.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law – Is it a Variation or Not?', 'In a construction contract, it may be in the form of a change to the original design, quality, or quantity of the works set out in the original scope of works under the contract. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1628-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:33:10', '2021-08-29 02:03:10', '', 1628, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1643', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1644, 1, '2021-08-29 07:34:06', '2021-08-29 02:04:06', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main feature necessary for this is the need for an agreement between parties. If the contract terms do not provide this requirement, there is no power for the employer or his agent to order variations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under that situation, if the employer wants to change something, always he must first seek the consent of the contractor before varying any work under the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, usually in every Conditions of Contact, there is a clause empowering the employer to vary the work. Case law - <em>Stockport MBC v O’Reilly (1978) – </em>discusses the need for having provisions to vary the work in the agreement between parties to the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council v O’Reilly (1978)</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>O’Reilly entered into a contract to build 105 houses, garages, and ancillary works for the council. The contract was in JCT 63 form. According to the agreement, the completion date was in November 1969.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect requested to impose phases in place of dates and also gave instructions to employ some people on particular sections of the work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these and other instructions were not allowed by any of the conditions of the contract. In that situation, no power to issue variation is implied.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes between the parties for payments were referred to arbitration. One of the points at issue was the extent to which the work had been varied. The interim award of the arbitrator allowing payments was questioned before the court, and the court set aside the arbitrator’s award.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was mentioned in the judgment that the arbitrator failed in his interim award to find the extent to which the works had been varied. The arbitrator has confused variations under the contract with orders given by the architect which were not authorized by the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It was held that not to burden the employer with liability because of the architect’s ultra vires acts. It is because the architect has no authority to vary the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the parties agree to the instructions, the contract may be pro tanto varied. If not, the contractor is entitled to protest and ignore the instructions.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Power needed to issue variations', 'Legally a variation can be defined as an agreement between parties supported by consideration to change some terms of the contract between them.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1633-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:34:06', '2021-08-29 02:04:06', '', 1633, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1644', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1645, 1, '2021-08-29 07:35:18', '2021-08-29 02:05:18', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works. It may be in the form of an addition, modification, or omission. This provision may permit the omission of works to an unlimited degree. If so, it allows the client or his agent to omit most of the works, agreed upon originally. Then the question arises whether it is possible legally, or law places any limit on what may be omitted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another important matter is, although the contract provisions empower the employer or the contract administrator to omit part of the work agreed originally, it does not give the right to omit with the object of giving omitted works to another contractor. For example, the employer cannot employ another contractor to do the omitted work at a lesser rate than in the original contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The correct practice would be to omit only when the employer does not expect to have the omitted work done at all.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Abbey Development v PP&nbsp;Brickwork&nbsp;(2003)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant, <em>Abbey Developments Limited</em> engaged the defendant <em>PP Brickwork Ltd</em> as a labour-only subcontractor for brickwork and blockwork for the development of an estate of 69 houses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The case was initiated to clarify whether the claimant was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which the defendant had agreed to carry out.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant was invited to submit a tender by a letter of invitation dated 25<sup>th</sup> September 2000. Part of the invitation letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"For your information and guidance, we wish to advise the Site comprises of a total of 69 No. units and their respective Garages, and at present, it is envisaged that the construction program will last approximately 18 months.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"However, Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to vary the number of units and the construction program without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to a claim from the sub-contractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The letter of invitation further said;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Abbey Developments Limited reserves the right to renegotiate rates or suspend the Contract and retender the works without vitiating the Contract or giving rise to any claim from the subcontractor.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tender was duly submitted on 6th November. It was for a sum of £484,000. It was accompanied by a tender summary, which the tenderer had been required by the claimant to complete. The prices for each of the house types and the numbers of the prospective house types were all set out, together with those for the various types of garage.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On 21 December 2000, the claimant sent its subcontract order to the defendant, which was accepted forming the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract contained the usual standard provision for variations, including omissions, which would not vitiate the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some months later, after starting construction in 2001, the claimant had to write to the defendant complaining of various matters which is required to be put right.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>And then, in October, the claimant wrote to the defendant saying that it was considering determining the defendant\'s contract according to clauses 6 to 13 of the General Conditions because of failure to supply sufficient labour. That drew a reply from the defendant saying there had been labour. There was an answer to that saying they were merely considering it and not going to take the matter, at that stage, any further. And these continued, further complaining about health and safety matters. Ultimately, on 12th December, the claimant wrote complaining about insufficient supervision. It was also critical of the workmanship.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the above reasons, finally, the claimant terminated the contract. Part of the termination letter was as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"... I am informed by our Construction Department that still you are failing to provide labour in sufficient numbers and quality to maintain our build programme.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"Therefore, we must now inform you that we are </em><em>limiting your works to those plots that you currently have under construction.</em><em> Following the satisfactory completion of these plots, your contract will be determined in accordance with our standard terms and conditions.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>\"</em><em>An alternative contractor will be employed to complete the development and any additional costs to this company which result will be charged to your account</em><em>.\"</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The additional charges of the claimant have been quantified as £8,000.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This was followed by an adjudication procedure. On 12 February 2003 the adjudicator, decided that the claimant was in repudiatory breach of contract in deciding to limit the scope of the work and that the defendant was entitled to damages of £59,727.71 plus interest and 50% of the adjudicator\'s fees and expenses. He concluded that the termination letter constituted a repudiatory breach of contract by the claimant, entitling the defendant to damages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant went to the courts seeking a declaration as to whether Abbey was entitled to take away the remainder of the work which PP Brickwork had agreed to carry out. There was also an application by the defendant for the enforcement of the decision of the adjudicator which was in his favor.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The claimant\'s declarations, if granted, would mean the dispute that led to the adjudication would be resolved in favor of the claimant and the adjudicator\'s decision would then be unenforceable. If the claimant were to fail in its entirety on the application, then the adjudicator\'s decision would be enforceable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court refused Abbey’s application, holding that under the proper construction of the subcontract, Abbey was not entitled to reduce the quantity of the works by removing all plots upon which PP Brickwork had not yet started work. The Judge determined that a convenience or omissions clause required reasonably clear words to allow an employer to transfer work from one contractor to another. The subcontract provisions allowing the variation of the quantity of work lacked clarity to allow Abbey to behave as it did.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, Abbey was in breach of the subcontract by engaging an alternative contractor to carry out the work which had been removed from the scope of the subcontract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\">Conclusion</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If a Client wants the ability to reallocate work, then the contract must be clear and specific in this regard.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Abbey Developments, the contract permitted the omission of work where that work was no longer required for the project. The Client sought to omit work from the contractor because he was dissatisfied with the contractor’s performance, and give this work to another contractor. The court said that reallocation was a breach of contract because the wording only provided for the omission of work in certain circumstances (where the work was no longer required).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Case Law - Omissions', 'Under many standard contract conditions, there is a provision permitting the contract administrator to initiate any variation to the works.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1638-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-29 07:35:18', '2021-08-29 02:05:18', '', 1638, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1645', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1647, 1, '2021-08-29 23:07:54', '2021-08-29 17:37:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in soil is termed groundwater. It may be in saturated or unsaturated form.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The water table is the line showing the change of water level in the soil. Below the water table, the soil is saturated with water.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in the soil acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. This property is dangerous and causes difficulties when excavations to be done during construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level creates problems due to waterlogging. Therefore, it is necessary to dewater the area of excavation and keep it dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation. For example, laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, construction of masonry works are a few of them. Work can be carried out efficiently when the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Reducing Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following two methods are frequently used for lowering the water table during construction.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest and easiest method is to excavate drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water to sumps and remove using pumps. This method is suitable for fairly dense soil and shallow excavations. This is an economical method and is possible of being performed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1648,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1648\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1649,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1649\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint systems are used when dewatering to be done in large excavations such as<strong> </strong>for raft foundations. In this method, the flow of groundwater into the excavation is cut off using pipe wells driven deeper than the excavation around the perimeter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1650,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1650\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wellpoint comprises a 120 cm long and 4 cm diameter perforated pipe, with a valve which is used to regulate the flow and a screen preventing entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the outside edges of the excavation at the required depth, normally deeper than the bottom level of excavation. The spacing of the wellpoint is to be decided on the type of soil, normally around 1 meter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1651,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1651\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a pipe known as riser pipe having <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm. These are sunk into the ground by jetting. Then, these riser pipes are connected to a header pipe which is connected to a high capacity suction pump.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The groundwater is drawn out by the operation of the pump and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When installing well points using the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> </strong>wellpoint at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The high-pressure water jet displaces the surrounding soil, enabling the well point to be sunk to the required depth.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the wellpoint has been driven into the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time. It ensures washing all sand or silt out of the hole, till the return water from the hole is clean. Then, the water jet is stopped and the annular space formed around the wellpoint due to the jetting action of water is filled with coarse sand and gravel. It forms a filter zone around the wellpoint. Entering of fine particles from the surrounding soil into the wellpoint is prevented due to the filter zone. And also it prevents clogging of the wellpoint screen. Normally, the filter sand should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table up to the ground level can be filled with tamped clay. This acts as a clay seal reducing air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After installing and connecting all the wellpoint, the suction pump is operated.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed; the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen and is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for a modest depth of excavation, normally up to 18 m.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth. Therefore, in deep excavations, a multi-stage system of wellpoint can be used.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Techniques used to control groundwater', 'For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'techniques-used-to-control-groundwater', '', '', '2021-08-30 19:13:53', '2021-08-30 13:43:53', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1647', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1652, 1, '2021-08-29 23:07:40', '2021-08-29 17:37:40', '', 'heavy-machine-excavator-construction-3088700', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'heavy-machine-excavator-construction-3088700', '', '', '2021-08-29 23:07:40', '2021-08-29 17:37:40', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/heavy-machine-excavator-construction-3088700.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1653, 1, '2021-08-29 23:07:54', '2021-08-29 17:37:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in soil is termed groundwater. It may be in saturated or unsaturated form.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The water table is the line showing the change of water level in the soil. Below the water table, the soil is saturated with water.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in the soil acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. This property is dangerous and causes difficulties when excavations to be done during construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level creates problems due to waterlogging. Therefore, it is necessary to dewater the area of excavation and keep it dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation. For example, laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, construction of masonry works are a few of them. Work can be carried out efficiently when the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Reducing Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following two methods are frequently used for lowering the water table during construction.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest and easiest method is to excavate drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water to sumps and remove using pumps. This method is suitable for fairly dense soil and shallow excavations. This is an economical method and is possible of being performed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1648,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1648\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1649,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1649\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint systems are used when dewatering to be done in large excavations such as<strong> </strong>for raft foundations. In this method, the flow of groundwater into the excavation is cut off using pipe wells driven deeper than the excavation around the perimeter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1650,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1650\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wellpoint comprises a 120 cm long and 4 cm diameter perforated pipe, with a valve which is used to regulate the flow and a screen preventing entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the outside edges of the excavation at the required depth, normally deeper than the bottom level of excavation. The spacing of the wellpoint is to be decided on the type of soil, normally around 1 meter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1651,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1651\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a pipe known as riser pipe having <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm. These are sunk into the ground by jetting. Then, these riser pipes are connected to a header pipe which is connected to a high capacity suction pump.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The groundwater is drawn out by the operation of the pump and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When installing well points using the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> </strong>wellpoint at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The high-pressure water jet displaces the surrounding soil, enabling the well point to be sunk to the required depth.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the wellpoint has been driven into the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time. It ensures washing all sand or silt out of the hole, till the return water from the hole is clean. Then, the water jet is stopped and the annular space formed around the wellpoint due to the jetting action of water is filled with coarse sand and gravel. It forms a filter zone around the wellpoint. Entering of fine particles from the surrounding soil into the wellpoint is prevented due to the filter zone. And also it prevents clogging of the wellpoint screen. Normally, the filter sand should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table up to the ground level can be filled with tamped clay. This acts as a clay seal reducing air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After installing and connecting all the wellpoint, the suction pump is operated.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed; the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen and is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for a modest depth of excavation, normally up to 18 m.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth. Therefore, in deep excavations, a multi-stage system of wellpoint can be used.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Techniques used to control groundwater', 'For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1647-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-29 23:07:54', '2021-08-29 17:37:54', '', 1647, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1653', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1657, 1, '2021-08-30 19:12:53', '2021-08-30 13:42:53', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in soil is termed groundwater. It may be in saturated or unsaturated form.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The water table is the line showing the change of water level in the soil. Below the water table, the soil is saturated with water.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in the soil acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. This property is dangerous and causes difficulties when excavations to be done during construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level creates problems due to waterlogging. Therefore, it is necessary to dewater the area of excavation and keep it dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation. For example, laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, construction of masonry works are a few of them. Work can be carried out efficiently when the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Reducing Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following two methods are frequently used for lowering the water table during construction.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest and easiest method is to excavate drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water to sumps and remove using pumps. This method is suitable for fairly dense soil and shallow excavations. This is an economical method and is possible of being performed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1648,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1648\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1649,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1649\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint systems are used when dewatering to be done in large excavations such as<strong> </strong>for raft foundations. In this method, the flow of groundwater into the excavation is cut off using pipe wells driven deeper than the excavation around the perimeter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1650,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1650\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wellpoint comprises a 120 cm long and 4 cm diameter perforated pipe, with a valve which is used to regulate the flow and a screen preventing entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the outside edges of the excavation at the required depth, normally deeper than the bottom level of excavation. The spacing of the wellpoint is to be decided on the type of soil, normally around 1 meter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1651,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1651\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a pipe known as riser pipe having <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm. These are sunk into the ground by jetting. Then, these riser pipes are connected to a header pipe which is connected to a high capacity suction pump.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The groundwater is drawn out by the operation of the pump and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When installing well points using the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> </strong>wellpoint at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The high-pressure water jet displaces the surrounding soil, enabling the well point to be sunk to the required depth.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the wellpoint has been driven into the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time. It ensures washing all sand or silt out of the hole, till the return water from the hole is clean. Then, the water jet is stopped and the annular space formed around the wellpoint due to the jetting action of water is filled with coarse sand and gravel. It forms a filter zone around the wellpoint. Entering of fine particles from the surrounding soil into the wellpoint is prevented due to the filter zone. And also it prevents clogging of the wellpoint screen. Normally, the filter sand should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table up to the ground level can be filled with tamped clay. This acts as a clay seal reducing air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After installing and connecting all the wellpoint, the suction pump is operated.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed; the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen and is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for a modest depth of excavation, normally up to 18 m.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth. Therefore, in deep excavations, a multi-stage system of wellpoint can be used.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Techniques used to control groundwater', 'For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1647-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-30 19:12:53', '2021-08-30 13:42:53', '', 1647, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1657', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1658, 1, '2021-08-30 19:13:14', '2021-08-30 13:43:14', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in soil is termed groundwater. It may be in saturated or unsaturated form.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The water table is the line showing the change of water level in the soil. Below the water table, the soil is saturated with water.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Water held in the soil acts as a lubricant. It increases the tendency of soil to slip or slide. This property is dangerous and causes difficulties when excavations to be done during construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level creates problems due to waterlogging. Therefore, it is necessary to dewater the area of excavation and keep it dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation. For example, laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab, construction of masonry works are a few of them. Work can be carried out efficiently when the excavation area is kept dry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Reducing Water Level below the Excavation Bottom</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following two methods are frequently used for lowering the water table during construction.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Dewatering for Shallow Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest and easiest method is to excavate drains along the edges of the excavation, collect water to sumps and remove using pumps. This method is suitable for fairly dense soil and shallow excavations. This is an economical method and is possible of being performed with unskilled labour and simple equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1648,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1648\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1649,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1649\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dewatering for Large Excavations and Deep&nbsp;Foundations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Wellpoint system</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wellpoint systems are used when dewatering to be done in large excavations such as<strong> </strong>for raft foundations. In this method, the flow of groundwater into the excavation is cut off using pipe wells driven deeper than the excavation around the perimeter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1650,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1650\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wellpoint comprises a 120 cm long and 4 cm diameter perforated pipe, with a valve which is used to regulate the flow and a screen preventing entry of mud, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These wellpoints are installed along the outside edges of the excavation at the required depth, normally deeper than the bottom level of excavation. The spacing of the wellpoint is to be decided on the type of soil, normally around 1 meter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1651,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1651\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The wellpoint tube is connected to a pipe known as riser pipe having <em>5 </em>to 7.5 cm. These are sunk into the ground by jetting. Then, these riser pipes are connected to a header pipe which is connected to a high capacity suction pump.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The groundwater is drawn out by the operation of the pump and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When installing well points using the process of jetting, water is forced down through the<strong> </strong>wellpoint at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second. The high-pressure water jet displaces the surrounding soil, enabling the well point to be sunk to the required depth.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the wellpoint has been driven into the required depth, the water jet is allowed to run for some time. It ensures washing all sand or silt out of the hole, till the return water from the hole is clean. Then, the water jet is stopped and the annular space formed around the wellpoint due to the jetting action of water is filled with coarse sand and gravel. It forms a filter zone around the wellpoint. Entering of fine particles from the surrounding soil into the wellpoint is prevented due to the filter zone. And also it prevents clogging of the wellpoint screen. Normally, the filter sand should be filled up to the water table. The depth of the hole above the water table up to the ground level can be filled with tamped clay. This acts as a clay seal reducing air getting into the wellpoint through the sand filter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After installing and connecting all the wellpoint, the suction pump is operated.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Due to the suction, the ball valve in the wellpoint gets closed; the groundwater is drawn in through the wellpoint screen and is sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe, and is discharged away from the excavation area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method can be successfully adopted for a modest depth of excavation, normally up to 18 m.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the suction pump is normally not used to lift water above 6 m depth. Therefore, in deep excavations, a multi-stage system of wellpoint can be used.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Techniques used to control groundwater', 'For keeping the area of excavation in dry condition, the water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1647-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-30 19:13:14', '2021-08-30 13:43:14', '', 1647, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1658', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
