INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(908, 1, '2020-10-10 06:56:48', '2020-10-10 06:56:48', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc. It prevents bidders in the construction industry from submitting more realistic and competitive bidding. It increases the risk from the bidders’ point of view. Therefore, construction experts thought it is sensible to compute the cost of contracts on present prices, keeping provisions of price adjustment for probable fluctuations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of preparation of a bid, the bidders do not have a method to predict the future material, labour, and plant prices. Also, they do not willing to take the risk and prepare bids at current market prices and absorb the extra cost. So, they try to pass the risk to the client. If there is no way to recover the additional cost due to the increase in materials, plant, and labour prices, they simply include mark-up for rates or to the bid at the bidding stage. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, there is no firm methodology available for predicting this mark-up accurately. It is only guesswork. If the contractor adds a high mark-up, most probably he will not be selected. Any other contractor who has used a lower mark-up or zero mark-ups will be selected. Then, it may lead to a cash problem from the contractor’s side. As a result, it causes delays of work and ultimately the employer also suffers. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Remedy available</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction professionals can avoid these situations by introducing a price fluctuation clause in the tender document. Then the bidders have the opportunity to submit a realistic bid without adding an arbitrary mark-up for escalation. It reduces the risk of the bidder. hence it is a benefit for the bidder. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of implementation, the contractor is reimbursed for any additional expenditure due to price escalation. The employer also gets benefits from the price escalation clause.  The bid he receives from the bidder is very realistic. In addition, he has to pay an additional sum only if there are increases in the cost of resources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Price Variation reimbursement methods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>1. Conventional / Traditional Method</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditionally, price fluctuation was paid only for specified inputs. Computations were based on the actual consumption of such inputs during the period of each interim valuation. Also, the base price of specified materials should be mentioned in the contract document. The contractor has to submit purchasing invoices of such materials with the interim valuation.  Adjustment to the contract price was calculated by applying the difference between the basic price and current price and the actual consumption.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Disadvantages of the conventional method;</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- This method limits the reimbursement to specified inputs only. Risks of prediction of other inputs were still with the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Calculation was laborious and tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The contractor had to collect many documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Certification of claim also was very tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Example of computation of price fluctuation in the traditional method</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1371,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/18-1.png\" alt=\"Example of computation of price fluctuation in the traditional method\" class=\"wp-image-1371\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>2. Formula Method (used in Sri Lanka)</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula method introduced by the ICTAD (CEDA) provides a mechanism for contract price adjustment due to open market escalation in specified construction inputs such as major building materials, hire charges of plants, and wages for the labour. When we compare this method with the traditional method, computation using the formula is much easier. Also, it needs lesser documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1372,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/18-2.png\" alt=\"Formula Method (used in Sri Lanka)\" class=\"wp-image-1372\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>F &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Price variation for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Valuation of work for the interim valuation period (Work done + 80% Materials at site)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V<sub>na</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Value of non-adjustable elements for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Input percentage of input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Base index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xc</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Current index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the interim bill, we can find the values of V and V<sub>na</sub>. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> values are available in the Tender document.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> and I<sub>xc</sub> values are available in the respective monthly statistical bulletin of ICTAD (CEDA).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Price Fluctuations', 'The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'price-fluctuations', '', '', '2021-01-15 19:29:42', '2021-01-15 13:59:42', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/10/10/price-fluctuations/', 0, 'post', '', 8),
(917, 1, '2020-10-10 08:03:45', '2020-10-10 08:03:45', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term “Delict” used in the Roman-Dutch law denotes a wrongful act by one person in the society against another in breach of the legal rights of the latter.&nbsp; This wrong would give rise to a civil action for damages against the wrongdoer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Burchell<a href=\"#_ftn1\">[1]</a>defined delict as an unlawful, blameworthy (i.e. intentional or negligent) act or omission which causes another person damage to person or property or injury to personality and for which a civil remedy for recovery of damages is available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The word “Tort” is the corresponding term uses in the English and common law jurisdictions. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Law<a href=\"#_ftn2\">[2]</a>, Tort means a wrongful act or omission for which damages can be obtained in a civil court by the person wronged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Law of Delict in Sri Lanka mainly consists of principles drawn from Roman-Dutch law and English common law jurisdictions. Also, there are recent statutes passed by the parliament of Sri Lanka.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Case Study</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>S M Goldstein &amp; Co (Pty) Ltd. v Cathkin Park Hotel (Pty) and Another (513/98) [2000] ZASCA37; 2000 (4) SA 1019 (SCA); [2004] All SA 407 (A) (8 September 2000)</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Facts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The defendant-appellant, a building contractor, was responsible for the construction of a hotel. The building owner was the first plaintiff-respondent. The lessee and operator of the hotel was the second plaintiff-respondent. During the operation of the hotel, a fire that had its source in the fireplace in the lobby of the hotel destroyed part of the complex. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plaintiff-respondents, claiming in delict and alleging negligence, sued against the architect, the interior decorator, the project manager, and the defendant-appellant (the contractor), in an action for damages. The case against the others has been settled or withdrawn in a lower court. Also, the lower court held the defendant-appellant liable to compensate the plaintiff-respondents for any damages suffered as a result of the fire. The defendant-appellant filed this case against the above judgment. Now the court has to find out whether he is liable or not.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The area where the hotel is located tends to be cold in winter. Therefore, a fireplace in the lobby was an important design feature. The architect and the interior decorator issued drawings and instructions to build a fireplace using Jetmaster firebox suitable for an open fire. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Jetmaster is a trade name of a company that supplies fireplaces</em>). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A railway sleeper, impregnated with bitumen, was rested on the top of the firebox. Above that, an ornamental structure consisting of a sheet of chipboard with decorative log ends were fixed. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5>Jetmaster\'s instructions</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Jetmaster issues with every component they sold following instructions; “IMPORTANT: Combustible materials should not be fitted within 450 mm above the firebox unless adequate provision is made to insulate such materials”. The defendant-appellant, sometimes using nominated sub-contractors, constructed the hotel in general accordance with the architect’s plans. But when constructing the fireplace, he failed to adhere to Jetmaster’s instructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fireplace was in constant use. The railway sleeper was on the fireplace. This area of the fireplace was the hottest part. Besides, the sleeper was impregnated with bitumen. As a result of all these and the heat caused the sleeper to ignite. From there fire spread into the roof void via a flue that was constructed using chipboard and masonry. The fire finally destroyed part of the hotel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>The Court had to ascertain;</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Whether the defendant-appellant was negligent in constructing the hotel? </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If so</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To establish whether the reasonable builder would have taken reasonable steps to guard against such occurrence?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Were the damages recoverable in law?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To establish liability under the Aquilian action the conduct of the defendant-appellant must be legally wrongful as regards the plaintiff–respondents. In other words, the law protects the plaintiff–respondents’ interests and a breach of this duty will render the defendant-appellant legally liable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While it is obvious that positive wrongful conduct will give rise to liability if the relevant conditions are satisfied, it is uncertain whether omission to act will also give rise to such liability. Mckerron<a href=\"#_ftn1\">[3]</a> cites some instances in which legal liability may be incurred by an omission to act;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where by the prior conduct of the defendant, a potentially dangerous state of affairs was created.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where a person is in control of a thing which may cause injury to others if due care is not taken.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where a person is under a duty to act because of the office he is occupying.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where, a duty to act imposes by the statute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5>Analysis</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The facts of the case establish a prima facie case of negligence. It is clear that the design and construction of the fireplace were unsafe. Sometimes, the architect and the interior decorator might have given drawings and instructions on how to construct the fireplace. In that case, they may also have been negligent or in dereliction of their duties. But during the construction, as an experienced contractor, the defendant-appellant should notice that there is a possibility of igniting the railway sleeper with highly inflammable bitumen when it is hot. He should consider that possibility before fixing it directly over the firebox without adequate insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is as highlighted in <em>Kruger v Coetzee<a href=\"#_ftn1\"><strong>[4]</strong></a></em>, whether a <em>diligence paterfamilias</em> in the position of the defendant would have foreseen the reasonable possibility of his conduct injuring another in his person or property and causing him a patrimonial loss. The other thing, although the contractor was bound by the conditions of the contract to carry out instructions given by the architect, as a sole controller of a worksite he has to take due care and get the responsibility for what he constructed. If there was any conflict with the architect\'s instructions and the manufacturer\'s requirements, he should notify the architect before carrying out the work. National Building Regulations, which is a statute, also specify the safety requirements of this type of construction. Therefore, the defendant-appellant failed to carry out legal duties imposed by statute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard of Care</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the questions to decide was whether the defendant-appellant had any duty of care towards plaintiff-respondents. It is not very difficult to conclude that the defendant-appellant as a qualified contractor, to whom the responsibility of construction was entrusted to, owed a duty to the plaintiff-respondent. The duty was to construct the hotel, exercising reasonable care and skill as a professional contractor, without causing patrimonial loss to him. In this construction, it seems that any reasonable contractor would refrain from something unsafe. He should follow the manufacturer\'s installation instructions, especially when they relate to safety. Here, the manufacturer\'s instructions are so simple. The only thing necessary was to increase the gap between the railway sleeper and the firebox. Or else, to add proper insulation to the railway sleeper. Since the defendant-appellant failed to do so confirm his negligence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>CAUSATION</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having decided on the requirements of attracting liability under Aquilian action, the next is to be decided whether there is a causal link between the damage and the act or omission. Evidence placed above shows, the negligence of the defendant-appellant caused or materially contributed to the damages to the hotel and thereby caused patrimonial loss to the plaintiff-respondent.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>DEFENCES</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a case of tortious liability, the burden of proof lies on the plaintiff. To establish a prima facie case, the plaintiff must prove all the elements of negligence. Those are as follows. He should prove the defendant owed him a duty of care. And, by his negligence, he broke that duty of care. Also, his conduct was the cause of the harm. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then the burden of proof will transfer to the defendant. It is to rebut it. If he can rebut one of the elements of negligence, that would be enough to absolve him from liability. If not, as an alternative, there are other alternatives. Those are proof of contributory negligence or voluntary assumption of risk on the part of the plaintiff.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this case, one of the defenses of the defendant-appellant was the effect on the scope of his legal duty due to the employment of an architect, safety consultant, use of nominated subcontractors by the plaintiff-respondent as the owner of the project. But the court said that it only indicates more than one party had a legal duty towards the plaintiff-respondent with the safety of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Contributory negligence as a defense</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The other defense was on contributory negligence of the first plaintiff-respondent approving the design and the choice of materials for the fireplace. But the court rejected that on the ground there were several independent experts to design, construct and manage the construction of the hotel. It was not the practice of the first plaintiff-respondent as the owner of the project to check independently whether everyone doing his work properly. Besides, the owner has an entitlement to rely on persons who gets payments for those works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Conclusion</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This case is a prime example where the liability of tort supersedes the contractual obligations. The contractor is legally bound by the conditions in a contract. But, if act negligently he will be liable under tort for the damages.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Law of Tort - English Law</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The English law concept similar to the Law of Delict is the Law of Tort. The aim of the English law of tort is to grant compensation and redress to victims of injury and loss. When we consider the primary object of a delictual action, it is to grant damages for harm done. The damages usually being in the form of monetary compensation. Principally, both are the same.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The basic principle the English law uses to find whether a person is liable or not under the tort is the ‘fault principle’. Here the plaintiff has to prove there is a duty of care, the defendant has breached that duty of care, the link between the damage and the breach of duty, and the loss occurred. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the delict, to prove the liability the plaintiff has to prove unlawfulness, fault, causation, and damage. Although these two actions are principally the same, there are some differences when building a case. For example, in a delictual case when proving the unlawfulness the only test uses is reasonableness. That means what is good and what is bad. That is a universal principle. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>But the English law uses multiple tests and principles, such as the neighbor principle (two-stage test, current test). Lord Atkin enunciated the “neighbor principle” under which if it was reasonably foreseeable that one’s failure to take care would cause injury to another, and then one owed that other a duty to take the requisite care, breach of which would give rise to liability in damages[5]. Now the Consumer Protection Act undertakes the establishment of a duty of care between the manufacturer of a product and the ultimate customer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Mixed practices in Sri Lanka</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To the field of delict in Sri Lanka, the principles of the English law of torts also have infiltrated. The most probable reason for this might be that English judges who are unfamiliar with the Roman-Dutch law of delict have turned to decide cases surfaced before them. In earlier cases such as <em>Lakeman v Bain (1855) </em>and <em>Kandasamy v Municipal Council (1905), </em>English judges meticulously applied Roman-Dutch principles. But in later cases, such as <em>Van Cuylanbury v Capper (1909), Corea v Peries (1910), </em>and <em>Sabapathy v Huntley (1937), </em>they increasingly relied on English law. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Principles such as the doctrine of strict liability as enunciated in <em>Rylands v Fletcher (1868), </em>which are unknown in the Roman-Dutch law, have also been introduced into our law. The result is that the law in our country is neither pure Roman-Dutch law nor English law. It is a combination of both systems peculiar to Sri Lanka.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Other Systems of Compensations</strong> </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the primary functions of the law of delict is to grant compensation for those who have suffered loss or injury to their person or property. However, the important condition is establishing that the loss or injury of the plaintiff is due to the unlawfulness of the defendant. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, this method is not always effective due to several factors, especially in countries like Sri Lanka. Some of those factors are poverty, ignorance of one’s rights under the law, victim’s lack of interest, and delays in litigation. Poverty or ignorance may prevent a victim from obtaining a remedy in law. Even having obtained it, the defendant may not able to pay compensation granted by the court. Then it may result in the plaintiff to shoulder the burden of his injury or loss. Litigation is an expensive and time-consuming process. The hardship caused by the delays of the law often reverses any relief which might grant to a victim. This discourages many people from having recourse to the law to obtain compensation from injuries.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Practice in other countries</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many countries in recent times have introduced more effective ways to ensure granting compensation to victims. For example, in both France and West Germany, there is a ‘no-fault’ work accident insurance scheme. For these, employers have to contribute a pre-assessed amount. Therefore, the employee gets an assurance of obtaining compensation for sickness and injury which suffer in the course of employment, irrespective of the fault of the employer. In New Zealand, the protection covers under the Accident Compensation Act of 1972. There, the accident victims can obtain compensation without proof of fault.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Practice in Sri Lanka</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Sri Lanka, under Workmen’s Compensation Ordinance, an employee can obtain compensation for personal injuries arising out of and in the course of their employment, irrespective of the negligence of the employer. Also, in Sri Lanka, we have a fairly developed system of insurance. It ensures that victims of industrial injury and motor accidents receive compensation. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator\"/>\n<!-- /wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Foot note</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\">[1]</a> Burchell, J., Principles of Delict, Juta, 1993, p 09</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref2\">[2]</a> Oxford University Press, Oxford Dictionary of Law, 5<sup>th</sup> Ed, p 500</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[3]</a> Mckerron R.G., <em>The law of Delict, </em>4th Ed, (1952), p 25.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[4]</a> Kruger v Coetzee 1966 (2) SA 428 (A)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[5]</a><em>Donoghue v Stevenson </em>1932 SC (HL) 31; 1932 SLT 317; [1932] AC 562</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Law of Delict - Case Study', 'The term “Delict” used in the Roman-Dutch law denotes a wrongful act by one person in the society against another in breach of the legal rights of the latter.  This wrong would give rise to a civil action for damages against the wrongdoer', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'law-of-delict-case-study', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:05:24', '2021-01-14 16:35:24', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/10/10/law-of-delict-case-study/', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1158, 1, '2020-12-25 15:31:57', '2020-12-25 10:01:57', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a) </strong>A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. Show that compression reinforcement will be required. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>f<sub>cu</sub> </em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup>, <em>f<sub>y</sub> </em>= 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>b) </strong>Calculate the number of 16 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as compression reinforcements. The distance of the center of compression reinforcement from the compression concrete surface may be taken as 40 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>c) </strong>Calculate the number of 25 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as tensile reinforcements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Answer:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1397,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-1.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams \" class=\"wp-image-1397\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Given&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b = 225 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d = 450 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d<sup>’</sup> = 40 mm,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>M = 300.0 kNm, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<em>f<sub>cu</sub></em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong>, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong><em>f<sub>y</sub></em>=460 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong>M &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 300.0 kNm&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 300 x 10<sup>6</sup> Nmm</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1398,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-2-1024x178.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1398\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong><u>Therefore, compression reinforcement will be required.</u></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1399,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-3-1024x187.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1399\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1400,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1400\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The compression steel will yield and the stress is equal to 0.95<em>f<sub>y</sub></em>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1401,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1401\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1402,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-6-1024x198.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1402\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1403,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1403\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1404,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1404\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1405,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-9-1024x214.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1405\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The force in the compression reinforcement is dependent on the stress and consequently the strain ζ<em><sub>cs</sub></em>. In order to ensure that this is greater than or equal to the yield stress, the ratio of (<em>d</em>′<em>/x</em>) is limited to 0.37 as shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1408,\"width\":-24,\"height\":214,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/28-10-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1408\" width=\"-24\" height=\"214\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1409,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-10-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1409\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1407,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1407\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This value is given as 0.37 in the code to accommodate redistribution of moments in excess of 10%.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Doubly Reinforced Beams – BS 8110:1:1997 – Example 1', 'A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. ', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'doubly-reinforced-beams-bs-811011997-example-1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:30:14', '2021-01-15 15:00:14', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/12/25/doubly-reinforced-beams-bs-811011997-example-1/', 0, 'post', '', 1),
(1027, 1, '2020-10-26 15:35:23', '2020-10-26 15:35:23', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A unit rate may be defined as the total overall cost of a specific item description for a quantity of one unit in the bill of quantity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This one unit shall be measured according to the S.M.M. applicable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit rate must include the cost of all labor, material, plant, and main contractor’s subcontractor fee, overheads, and main contractor’s profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It follows that the costs of the preliminaries are priced separately from the unit rates in the bills of quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Labor rates</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor rates include – Wages, extra payments such as allowances, overtime, and holiday payments, traveling and lodging charges, bonuses, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Material rates</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Materials - the basic price of materials must include the cost at delivery to site, percentage allowance for all waste, unloading, storing, removing to position, including hoisting or lowering, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Shrinkage and consolidation are allowed for by a percentage addition, either to the quantities of the materials or the price of the material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Prime cost</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Prime cost – when services are not executed by the builder but by the nominated sub-contractors they are included as prime cost sums. Similarly nominated suppliers’ commodities are covered by P.C. sums.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The builder is allowed profit and attendance on the prime cost sums.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Provisional Sums</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Provisional Sums – when certain building works cannot be accurately measured, a provisional sum is provided in the bill of quantities to meet the charges. Examples are the breaking of an existing foundation, insurance, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Overhead</strong>s</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It can be divided into two types - Site and General Overheads. Some examples are director’s fee, bank charges, overdraft expenses and loss of interest, office rent, taxes, cost of office staff, cost of storage of materials, deprecation of plant and office equipment, transport and traveling expenses, branch office expenses, insurance, telephone, postage, lighting, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Preliminary items</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following basic preliminary items are normally considered for pricing – site supervision, temporary offices, storage sheds, small plants, concreting plants and hoists, cranes and passenger lifts, scaffolding, safety measures, welfare conditions, telephone, temporary roads, temporary fencing, setting out, watching and lighting, notices and fees to local authorities, maintenance of public and private roads, testing materials, temporary water and electricity for works, insurance, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Unit Rate in a Bill of Quantity', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'unit-rate-in-a-bill-of-quantity', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:04:32', '2021-01-14 16:34:32', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/10/26/unit-rate-in-a-bill-of-quantity/', 0, 'post', '', 7),
(1030, 1, '2020-10-26 15:49:27', '2020-10-26 15:49:27', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveying is a task of measuring construction work required to implement the architects\' design for new or renovated buildings. One purpose of quantity surveying is to produce a document of quantified sub-work items to represent the whole construction. &nbsp;It is known as Bills of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Objectives </strong><strong>of the Bill of Quantities</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>· to provide necessary information on the quantities of works to be carried out</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;assist bids to be prepared efficiently and accurately;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>and during the post-contract stage,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;use a priced Bill of Quantities for the preparation of interim valuation of works executed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To attain these objectives,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Separate entire construction work into different items in the Bill of Quantities. That means separated into sub activities, and when added together it represents the whole construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Sub activities or items are grouped under different classes of works or trades with sufficient details,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It distinguishes works of the same nature but carried out in different locations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The layout and content of the Bill of Quantities must be simple and brief. It shall be consistent with the above requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>QUANTITY SURVEYOR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To produce a Bill of Quantity, a detailed quantity surveying process has to be completed. These services are provided by a professional Quantity Surveyor (QS).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>A Quantity Surveyor is usually hired by the Owner / Architect at the inception of a project.</li><li>The QS makes;<ul><li>cost feasibility studies,</li><li>establishes the construction budget,</li><li>makes cost checks at all stages of the design process,</li><li>prepares a final Bill of Quantities.</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Bill of Quantity is a part of the bidding document, especially in Measure and Pay contracts. The bidders use information in construction drawings, specifications, and the bill of quantity as the basis for pricing of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The QS advises the owner on contractual arrangements,</li><li>compiles certificates of interim and final payment to the contractor doing the work.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Experienced Quantity Surveyors have a good knowledge of construction costs. Therefore, they can provide a design cost planning service even before actual design or construction begins. That helps the client to decide on their total budget, before the commissioning of any design work<strong>.</strong> If proper cost planning techniques are not used, it may result in costly bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SOME ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF BILL OF QUANTITIES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>No need to measure the same design or the plan by several bidders to prepare their bids for competition. It saves cost and time.</li><li>Bids submit by different bidders are consistent because all use the same bill of quantity for the preparation of their bids. Therefore at the selection stage, the client can select the most efficient and least expensive contractor for his job.</li><li>Other than plans and specifications, the client can provide a broad and clear statement of the work he requires using the bill of quantity. And then the bidder can state the price at which he is prepared to undertake the job.</li><li>It can be used as a basis for the financial administration of the contract.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'BILL OF QUANTITY & THE QUANTITY SURVEYOR', 'Quantity surveying is a task of measuring construction work required to implement the architects\' design for new or renovated buildings. One purpose of quantity surveying is to produce a document of quantified sub-work items to represent the whole construction.  It is known as Bills of Quantities.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'bill-of-quantity-the-quantity-surveyor', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:02:00', '2021-01-14 16:32:00', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/10/26/bill-of-quantity-the-quantity-surveyor/', 0, 'post', '', 3);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1047, 1, '2020-11-02 12:24:01', '2020-11-02 12:24:01', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In general, the <strong>Environment</strong> is considered as our surroundings. It can be natural or man-made. Sometimes, it can be a combination of the above two.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The<strong> Built Environment</strong> is the surrounding created by man. However, it may be with the help of the natural environment. Or sometimes, it may be without the help of the natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Environmental Considerations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Planning requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Building Regulations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Land restrictions by vendor or lessor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Availability of services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Local amenities including transport.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Subsoil conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Levels and topography of the land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. Adjoining buildings or land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. Use of building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. Daylight and view aspects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The building as an environmental envelope</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Even from ancient times, man tried to modify and control the environment in which he lives to suit his requirements. During those days, caves and other natural shelters used as primitive houses, to protect from the external environment. As civilization has developed, the nature of these shelters has become more superior and complex. Simply, we can say, humankind developed from caves and natural forms of shelter to simple and then to complex artificial enclosures. However, these creations and developments have depended upon the nature of the climate in specific locations and the availability of building materials locally.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The use of protective elements is not the only way used to control the human environment. The use of energy to assist in environmental moderation has been fundamental after the discovery of fire. Primitive people used fire to provide light and heat.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Buildings are used for different purposes. Most of the time, we use buildings to house people. Or else, we use buildings to place machinery and equipment and do different types of processes, or to run offices, so on. So each occasion, it exerts differing demands in terms of the internal environment. So this has resulted in the development of buildings with associated services capable of moderating the internal conditions within desired parameters with great accuracy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Performance requirements of the building fabric</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the performance requirements of present-day buildings is to provide an acceptable internal environment. However, the level of performance of buildings depends upon several factors. The importance we place upon these individual performance requirements varies from situation to situation. Statute, regulations, and guidelines set only the minimum standards to meet. These are issued as Building Regulations. And the guidelines in Building Regulations must be adhered to in every instance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The performance requirements of buildings may be summarized as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Structural stability</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To satisfactorily fulfill the functions required of a building, it must be able to withstand the loadings imposed upon it without suffering deformation or collapse. This demands the effective resistance of building elements to loadings or their safe transfer through the structural elements to the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Durability</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the long-term performance of the structure and its fabric, it is very essential that the ability of components of the building to withstand the vagaries and hostilities of the environment in which they are placed. The ability of the building elements to maintain their integrity and functional ability for the required period is very important. It is fundamental to the ability of the building to perform in the long term. However, this factor mostly affects in the event of a fire in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Thermal insulation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The external fabric of a given building must provide an acceptable standard of resistance to the passage of heat. It is necessary to maintain internal conditions within fixed parameters and also to conserve energy. However, the level of thermal insulation which is desirable in an individual instance is dependent upon the use of the building, its location, and so on.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Protection from weather and Exclusion of moisture</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Moisture may enter into a building in the form of groundwater rising through capillary action, precipitation, or other possible sources. Anyhow, the building envelope should resist the passage of moisture from the exterior into the building. This ingress of moisture to the interior of the building can have several undesirable effects. It may cause the decay of timber elements, deterioration of surface finishes, and decorations. Besides, it is a risk to the health of occupants. Also, it may affect certain processes carried out in the building. Therefore, details must be incorporated in building design to resist and prevent the passage of moisture, from all undesirable sources to the interior. For the satisfactory performance of any building fabric, the exclusion of wind and water is an essential factor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Acoustic insulation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When designing and constructing a building, the passage of sound from the exterior to the interior, or between interior spaces, should be considered. However, the level of sound transmission which is acceptable will vary considerably, depending upon the nature of the use of the building and its position.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Flexibility</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Especially in industrial and commercial buildings, the ability of the building to cope with and respond to changing user needs has become very important. Therefore, the level of required future flexibility must consider in the initial design of the building. Sometimes it is handled by buildings with large open spaces originally. Then it is later subdivided by the use of partitions, which may be readily removed and relocated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Aesthetics</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The issue of building aesthetics can be considered as personal. Some consider the importance of this aspect as very minimal. While for others, it is highly important. For example, the appearance of a factory building in an industrial estate is far less important than that of a star class restaurant in the city center. The extent to which aesthetics are considered will have an unavoidable effect on the cost of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Above are some indicative factors which affect the design and performance of buildings and their components.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Building Engineering – An Introduction', 'The Built Environment is the surrounding created by man. However, it may be with the help of the natural environment. ', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'building-engineering-an-introduction', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:00:47', '2021-01-14 16:30:47', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/11/02/building-engineering-an-introduction/', 0, 'post', '', 2),
(1053, 1, '2020-11-02 12:31:47', '2020-11-02 12:31:47', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Stress</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When we apply an external force to a building element, it tends to deform. This deformation is opposed by stresses or internal forces created within the fibers of the element. If the magnitude of these stresses is within the level which can be satisfactorily withstood by the material, then the building will remain structurally stable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Types of stresses</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating stress is <em>W </em>/ <em>A</em>, where <em>W </em>= load and <em>A </em>= cross-sectional area. Stress is measured in N/mm<sup>2</sup> or kN/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Compressive stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compressive stress is the internal force set up within a structural element when an externally applied force produces a tendency for the member to be compressed. Then the element is said to be in compression. Some building construction materials have higher resistance capacity for compressive stresses. A very common example is concrete. The amount of stress in a structural member will increase if the load is increased due to an increase in dead loading caused by the weight of the structural elements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Tensile stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tensile stress is the internal force which induced within an element that resists an external loading that produces a tendency to stretch the component. In this situation, the member is in tension. Steel is very good at withstanding tensile stress. But concrete is weaker in resisting tensile.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Different materials are better at withstanding the different kinds of stresses. Therefore, the use of two materials called composite materials to produce structural elements is common. Reinforced concrete beams are an example of this.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a simply supported concrete beam, the top section of the beam is in compression. So, the fibers are being crushed together. The fibers in the bottom section are being pulled apart. So, this section is in tension.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Normally, steel has been placed at the bottom to withstand the tension. And the top half of the beam is concrete to withstand the compression. In reinforced concrete, both compressive resistance of concrete, as well as tensile resistance of steel, is utilized. This makes a very economical beam section.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Shear stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When an external load is applied to a building element, sometimes it tends one part of the building element to slide past the adjacent layer. The resisting internal stress opposing this action created within the building element is called shear stress. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Torsional stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Torsional stress is the internal force created within a structural element that resists an externally applied loading which would cause the element to twist.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Strain</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When tensile or compressive stress is created on a building element, it tries to increase or decrease the length of the element.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The value of change in length depends upon the length of the element, the applied loading, and the material stiffness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ratio between the change in length and the original length of the element is known as <em>strain </em>(<em>e</em>).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>e = ∂L / L where ∂l </em>= change in length and <em>L </em>= original length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The strain has no unit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effect can be seen in materials subject to shear stress. However, the deformation caused in such cases tends to change the element into a parallelogram shape.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The relationship between stress and strain (subject to loading limits, i.e. within elastic limit) is directly proportional and is a measure of the material’s stiffness. The relationship or the ratio between the stress and strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Moments</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When we apply a force on a building element, sometimes it tends the element to bend. The term given to such a tendency is the <em>moment</em>. The value of such a moment depends on the magnitude of the applied force and the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation to the point at which the loading is applied. Due to the effect of leverage, a comparatively small load applied at sufficient distances from the point of action can create large rotational force.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the structure to remain stable, moments on the structure must be in equilibrium, i.e. clockwise moments (+) must balance anticlockwise moments (–).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When multiplied by the value of applied force by the perpendicular distance from the point of action which is called lever arm we can calculate the magnitude of the moment. It is expressed in newton millimeters or kilonewton meters. When designing a building element, it is required to calculate the maximum bending moment that will be created in a structural element by the expected loading system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Building Engineering - Forces exerted on and by Buildings', 'When we apply an external force to a building element, it tends to deform. This deformation is opposed by stresses or internal forces created within the fibers of the element.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'building-engineering-forces-exerted-on-and-by-buildings', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:59:17', '2021-01-14 16:29:17', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/11/02/building-engineering-forces-exerted-on-and-by-buildings/', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1070, 1, '2020-11-05 13:09:11', '2020-11-05 13:09:11', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of vertically applied forces on building elements are the dead loads of the building structure and some live loads. These loads tend to move the structure in a downward direction, i.e. to sink into the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The extent of any such movement depends upon;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- the ability of the foundation to distribute the loads exerted by the building over a sufficient area ensuring the stability for a particular load-bearing capacity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Different soil types have different values of load-bearing capacities. The functional requirement of foundations of buildings is to ensure that load applied by the building on to the ground should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. The bearing capacity of the ground is normally expressed in kN/m<sup>2</sup>. In most instances, this bearing capacity is very much less than the pressures likely to be exerted by the building structure if placed directly onto the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground</strong>?</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1375,\"width\":310,\"height\":353,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-1.png\" alt=\"How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground?\" class=\"wp-image-1375\" width=\"310\" height=\"353\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1376,\"width\":301,\"height\":171,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-2.png\" alt=\"How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground?\" class=\"wp-image-1376\" width=\"301\" height=\"171\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1378,\"width\":313,\"height\":368,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-3.png\" alt=\"How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground?\" class=\"wp-image-1378\" width=\"313\" height=\"368\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1379,\"width\":304,\"height\":173,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-4.png\" alt=\"How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground?\" class=\"wp-image-1379\" width=\"304\" height=\"173\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The pressure applied by the building on to the ground is reduced by introducing foundation. It increases the interface area between the building and the ground. Therefore, it results in reducing the pressure applied to the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The need to withstand vertical loadings is not only limited to the lower elements of the building structure. However, such loadings are greater in magnitude at the lower sections due to the effects of accumulated loadings from the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical components under vertical loads</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1381,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/24-5.png\" alt=\"When provided with lateral restraint\" class=\"wp-image-1381\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1382,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/24-6.png\" alt=\"without lateral restraint – may fail due to buckling\" class=\"wp-image-1382\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All structural components, such as beams, columns, slabs, and walls must be strong enough to carry loadings imposed upon them. Any building element should not fail under loading and should not show excessive deformation. Columns and walls carry loads of floors and roofs from above. Therefore, they must resist the buckling or crush by the forces exerted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Whether a column or a wall fails under crushing or by buckling due to the effect of vertical loading depends on the ‘<strong><em>slenderness ratio</em></strong>’ of the element. It means long and slender building elements units will tend to buckle easily.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Short and broad units resist such buckling tendencies. Although the risk of buckling is higher in long and thin elements, the risk can be reduced by incorporating bracing to prevent sideways movement. This is termed as <strong><em>lateral restraint</em>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1383,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-7.png\" alt=\"lateral restraint\" class=\"wp-image-1383\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a heavily loaded situation, even short and broad sections also may be subject to failure. Most probably, the failure mode in these situations is due to crushing. However, these are very rare occurrences.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Horizontal components under vertical loads</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of horizontal components of a building are floors and beams. These components also must be capable of performing effectively while withstanding vertically applied loadings. This is ensured by the use of materials of sufficient strength, designed appropriately, with sufficient support to maintain stability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heavy loading conditions on horizontal elements may give rise to deflection as shown in the figure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1384,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-8.png\" alt=\"Horizontal components under vertical loads\" class=\"wp-image-1384\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In extreme situations, puncturing of the component, as shown in the figure, may results from shearing at a specific point.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1385,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-9.png\" alt=\"Horizontal components under vertical loads\" class=\"wp-image-1385\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When deflected in a simply supported situation, upper sections of beams and floors are under compression while lower sections are under tension. This may limit the full use of the strength of some materials, such as concrete, which resist well only compressive forces. Under these conditions, composite units such as reinforced concrete may be used to give a more economical design.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical forces in an upward direction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Vertical forces on a building are not always in a downward direction. Sometimes they may act in upward directions. These upward forces can be resisted, by using the weight of the building. Upward loadings generate from the ground, due to changes and resulting forces of shrinkable clay or soils prone to expansion due to frost. These upward forces exerted by the ground is termed as <strong><em>heave</em></strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Horizontal forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1386,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-10.png\" alt=\"Horizontal forces\" class=\"wp-image-1386\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Horizontal forces acting on buildings generate from many sources. &nbsp;In the case of the basement wall, it may be due to sub-soil pressure. Or on to a roof or wall, it may be due to wind pressure or due to physical loading on the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These horizontal loads may affect the stability of a building in one of two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- by overturning or rotation of the building or its components</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- by horizontal movement or sliding of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the effects of these acts are highly undesirable. Therefore, the occurrence of these situations must be avoided by carefully designing the building. The type of foundations and the level of lateral restraint or buttressing incorporated into the design are essential to the prevention of such modes of failure. Additionally, in framed structures, the use of bracing to prevent progressive deformation or collapse is essential. This is described as the resistance of the ‘<strong>domino effect</strong>’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Oblique forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1387,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/24-11.png\" alt=\"Oblique forces\" class=\"wp-image-1387\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In some areas of a building, the external forces act at an inclination. Normally this happens when pitched roofs support on walls. A common example is wind loading. These oblique forces produce vertical and horizontal components of the applied loadings at the point of support. These can be resisted by the introduction of buttressing and/or lateral restraints.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The nature of forces acting on buildings', 'Examples of vertically applied forces on building elements are the dead loads of the building structure and some live loads. These loads tend to move the structure in a downward direction', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'the-nature-of-forces-acting-on-buildings', '', '', '2021-01-15 19:52:40', '2021-01-15 14:22:40', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/11/05/the-nature-of-forces-acting-on-buildings/', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1086, 1, '2020-11-09 04:21:24', '2020-11-09 04:21:24', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is a property of a section. It is also a function of the second moment of area. The radius of gyration gives the <strong>stiffness</strong> of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1389,\"width\":241,\"height\":387,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-1.jpg\" alt=\"The Radius of Gyration (r) \" class=\"wp-image-1389\" width=\"241\" height=\"387\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown in the diagram, the member bends in the thinnest plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using the radius of gyration, we can compare the behavior of various structural shapes under compression along an axis. It can be used to predict buckling in a compression member such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Formula for the Radius of Gyration - r</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1391,\"width\":164,\"height\":109,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1391\" width=\"164\" height=\"109\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where&nbsp; <em>I</em> = the second moment of area</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross-sectional area of the member</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit of measurement is mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The <strong>smallest</strong> value of the radius of gyration is considered for the calculations of the structural stiffness of the member. That is the plane in which the member is most likely to fail or buckle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Square or circular shapes have the same radius of gyration about any plane. There is no smallest value. Therefore, these sections are ideal selections for columns.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>Calculating the radius of gyration</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plan view of a column is shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1392,\"width\":317,\"height\":452,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-3.jpg\" alt=\"Calculating the radius of gyration \" class=\"wp-image-1392\" width=\"317\" height=\"452\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>First, we have to calculate the I value about <em>x-x</em> and <em>y-y</em> axes.</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>xx</sub></em> = 33.3 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>yy</sub></em><sub> </sub>= 2.08 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross sectional area = 50 mm x 200 mm = 10,000 mm<sup>2</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Substituting the value of <em>I<sub>xx</sub></em> and cross-sectional area <em>A</em> in the above formula we can get r<sub>xx</sub>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1393,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-5.png\" alt=\"value of the r about the x-x axis\" class=\"wp-image-1393\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>x-x</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1394,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-6.png\" alt=\"value of the r about the y-y axis\" class=\"wp-image-1394\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>y-y</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Since r<sub>yy</sub> is smaller, probable failure occurs about the <em>y-y</em> plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Radius of Gyration (r)', 'The radius of gyration gives the stiffness of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'the-radius-of-gyration-r', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:03:50', '2021-01-15 14:33:50', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/11/09/the-radius-of-gyration-r/', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1097, 1, '2020-11-11 10:12:37', '2020-11-11 10:12:37', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is an agreement between parties. It is binding in law. It means the rights and obligations of the parties under a contract may be enforced by the courts. Sometimes, the courts may force the performance of contractual obligations by the party in default. Usually, the court may award damages for breach of contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following are the four basic elements that must be present for a valid contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Offer,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Acceptance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Consideration, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The intention to create legal relations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, several rounds of negotiations take place between the parties, before an agreement becomes binding and a contract is formed. It is very important to know the exact moment when a contract is formed. &nbsp;At this precise point, the parties accept contractual obligations and the consequent risk of liability if any party breaches the terms of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Offer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An offer is a statement of willingness by one party to enter into a contract with the other party. It is comprised of specific and clear terms. The offer must be a complete one. Also, it must be specific and capable of being accepted. It must include the fundamental terms of the agreement having the intention to create the contract. There should be no further negotiations to take place. An offer can be “express” - for example, if A tells B she will sell her television set for Rs: 50,000.00. An offer can also be “implied” from conduct - for example when a customer brings goods to the cashier of a supermarket.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Invitations to Treat</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An invitation to treat is different from an offer. &nbsp;It only invites the other party to make an offer and is not considered binding. An example of an invitation to treat is an advertisement of goods for sale, with a price attached, in a shop window. Under the law of contract, as an invitation to treat, the customer cannot insist on buying such an item on display. And, the shop would not be obliged to sell the item at the price indicated. Circulars, catalogs, and price-lists would also normally be viewed as invitations to treat.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Termination of Offers</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An offer may be revoked or terminated;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>after elapsing a reasonable period. It is better to include in the offer what is meant by a reasonable period. It avoids uncertainty in the time limit;</li><li>if the offer is withdrawn or revoked before acceptance. However, this withdrawal or revocation must be communicated to the person or persons to whom the offer was originally made;</li><li>when the person to whom the offer was made rejects the offer. The offer then lapses. &nbsp;The person to whom the offer was made originally cannot afterward change their mind;</li><li>when the person making the offer dies;</li><li>if any condition of sale is not fulfilled.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Acceptance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After acceptance of the offer, a fully binding contract is formed. The acceptance must be final and unqualified of all the terms of the offer. The offer must accept without announcing new terms. If all the terms of the offer are not accepted or new terms are announced then this is considered as a counter-offer. A counter-offer rejects the original offer. If the terms of the counter-offer are accepted, however, then these become the terms of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acceptance does not take place until communicated to the person making the offer. The contract is formed at the moment when acceptance is communicated back to the party who made the offer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Main rules governing the communication of acceptance</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two main rules are governing the communication of acceptance:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Reception Rule - the contract is formed when acceptance is received by the person making the offer. This applies to instant forms of communication such as phone calls.</li><li>Postal Rule - this applies when it is reasonable to use a form of delayed communication such as the post. Under this rule, acceptance is considered as communicated as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted. It remains effective even if the letter is lost, delayed, or destroyed. The letter must however be properly posted and addressed.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is sensible to make provision in the terms of the offer as to the method and timing of the acceptance of the offer to avoid the use of the postal rule. At the moment no statutory or common law rules have been established to govern acceptance of an offer by e-mail. If no method of communication is specified then acceptance may be communicated by any method. However, if the method of communication of acceptance has been specified, then the offer can only be accepted in that manner. If acceptance is attempted to be communicated differently, then this would amount to a counter-offer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Consideration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For enforcing an obligation under a contract, there must be a consideration. Obligations can only be enforced if the party who wants to enforce that obligation has given or promised something in return. All parties to a contract must provide consideration. If no consideration has been provided by a party, then the contract will only be enforceable if it is made as a deed. The courts will not normally be concerned with the fairness of the contract or the adequacy of the consideration if the consideration mentioned has some value.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The person to whom the promise is made must have provided consideration. &nbsp;He must do, give or promise something in return for it. For example - X cleans Y\'s car and Y gives X Rs: 100 in return.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consideration must not be past. Something, has been already done, given, or promised before the formation of the contract is not to be considered as consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Intention to Create Legal Relations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes parties may make an agreement without any intention of legal binding. Those agreements will not be regarded by the courts as a contract. However, in commercial agreements, there is a presumption that the parties expect the agreement to be legally binding. To negate this presumption, a party will have to produce clear evidence to that effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of no intention to create legal relations are advertisements in which vague and extravagant claims are often made in order to attract customers. Another example is domestic agreements between husbands and wives or parents and children and other social agreements between friends such as an invitation for dinner. However, there may be certain situations in which advertisements, domestic agreements, and social agreements could be regarded as legally binding. An example of this would be where members of the same family have a business relationship with another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Certainty of Terms</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The terms of a legally binding contract must be certain. It is an essential factor. Terms cannot be unclear, ambiguous, or incomplete. Although there is a clear intention to create legal relations, if the terms of the agreement are unclear then it cannot be considered as a legally binding contract. However, the courts sometimes try to interpret uncertain terms in a way that makes them more certain. For example, it is done by reference to trade custom or previous dealings between the parties. However, outcomes of these situations depend on the specific facts of the cases.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Written or Oral</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract does not always need to be in writing. There are circumstances in which an oral contract will be legally enforceable. It is however sensible to record all the terms of the contract in writing. So both parties know the terms agreed whilst at the same time clarifying points of potential ambiguity between the parties. Another important thing is the written terms can be used in evidence in the event of a dispute. Where a contract is written each statement in that written document is a “term”. The written document is regarded as the whole contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract is an oral, or partly oral and partly written, then all the statements that have been made have to be looked at by the court to decide whether they are actual terms of the contract or mere representations. However, in certain circumstances law requires written contracts. These include guarantees, share transfers, assignments of certain intellectual property rights (e.g. a trademark), and most contracts relating to land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Discharge of Contracts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mainly there are four methods, by which a contract can be discharged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- performance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- breach,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- agreement, or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- frustration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Performance</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is discharged when all the parties have performed all their obligations under the contract. If a party decides not to perform its contractual obligations then it is not discharged from such obligations but remains bound to perform them. Refusal to perform may amount to a breach.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Breach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When a party fails to perform some or all of its obligations under the contract, the contract is considered as breached. Another situation for breached contracts is when a party performs an obligation defectively or indicates in advance that they will not be performing as previously agreed. Any breach permits the innocent party to bring a claim for damages for any loss suffered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Agreement</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is where the parties agree to terminate the contract in order to release one or both parties from the agreement. It can also take the form of a change in the contract terms. An agreement to change the contract is another binding agreement. But it has to be made by a deed or the promise must be backed up by consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Frustration</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, subsequent events occur which is not due to the fault of either party, and these events make the contract impossible or difficult to perform. Then the contract is considered as frustrated. In a frustrated situation, the parties are no longer bound to perform their obligations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many situations can create a contract difficult or even impossible to perform. However, only in certain circumstances, the contract is regarded as frustrated. One situation is the frustrating event must occur after the contract has been formed. And neither party must be at fault. Another situation is the frustrating event must strike at the root of the contract. And it must render further performance impossible, illegal, or totally different from that planned by the parties at the time the contract was made.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of frustrating events are as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- the destruction or unavailability of the subject matter of the contract,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- illegality of performance - for example following a change in the law,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- personal incapacity in a personal services contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is not usually discharged by frustration if the contract has simply become more expensive to perform or an alternative method of performance is possible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A frustrated situation automatically discharges the parties from their future obligations. No party can claim damages for non-performance. It is because neither party is to blame for the fault.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Discharge of a Contract by Challenging its Validity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The validity of a contract can be challenged on a number of grounds such as public policy, mistake, illegality, or duress.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Public Policy</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contracts to commit crimes are void for reasons of public policy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Illegality</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a basic rule, an illegal contract will be unenforceable by either party.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mistake</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In certain circumstances, a contract may be set aside due to a mistake made by the parties to that contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Duress</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is voidable by the injured party when it is induced by duress - which is actual or threatened violence or unlawful restraint. However, the injured party can choose to affirm or discharge the contract. Economic duress also makes a contract voidable if the injured party has been forced into the agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->', 'Law of Contracts - Basic Legal Issues', 'A contract is an agreement between parties. It is binding in law. It means the rights and obligations of the parties under a contract may be enforced by the courts.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'law-of-contracts-basic-legal-issues', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:52:24', '2021-01-14 16:22:24', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/11/11/law-of-contracts-basic-legal-issues/', 0, 'post', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1141, 1, '2020-12-18 21:56:54', '2020-12-18 16:26:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute is a difference of opinion or disagreement between parties to the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute exists if there is a claim or position on an issue by one party and its denial by the other party.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Methods of Dispute Resolutions</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Litigation</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; – in courts</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Alternate Dispute resolutions (ADR)</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Conciliation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Mediation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Adjudication</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Arbitration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Litigation vs. ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Litigation</strong></td><td><strong>ADR</strong></td></tr><tr><td>High cost and time</td><td>Low cost and lesser time</td></tr><tr><td>Open to public</td><td>Private</td></tr><tr><td>Place of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Place decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Time of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Time decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Judges are appointed by the state</td><td>Selected by the parties</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Factors affecting disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>The terms of the contract</li><li>The technological issues of site and works</li><li>The character of project personnel</li><li>Environmental factors</li><li>The legal basis of the argument, etc.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disagreement often arises over technical questions. For example, the use of different and unfamiliar techniques or methods may be the cause of disagreements and arguments. The site condition is also often a source of argument. Although at the time of the site visit, everything above ground level is visible, it can hold many surprises once excavation starts.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Whose responsibility to resolve disputes?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To find out the answer to this question, one has to look at the clauses in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Should any dispute, which arises out of a construction contract, must be resolved by courts or at arbitration?</li><li>Whether an arbitration agreement is included in the contract or not.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must always remember that contracting parties can alter the terms of their contract at any time by mutual consent.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A variety of techniques is available for the parties to form a settlement without resorting to arbitration or litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These procedures are informal. &nbsp;The terminologies used to describe them are somewhat loose and unclear. However, they are cheap and nonbinding.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Mostly used non-binding ADR methods are as follows;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Conciliation&nbsp;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The conciliator must be independent of the parties to contract. The purpose of this process is to agree with persuasion. Therefore, impartiality is an essential factor. Conciliators do not take sides. Also, they do not take decisions or make judgments. They talk to each party in private and will not reveal anything to the other party. The conciliator may bring the parties together for an open discussion, which he leads. The conciliator will be seeking to establish common ground, ascertaining the facts, which are in dispute. However, ultimately parties themselves have to reach an agreement.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mediation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is an extended version of conciliation. The initial stages will follow a similar process. The mediator consults first with one party and then with the other party. The end is different from conciliation. If no negotiated settlement results from the process, the mediator will make recommendations to settle the dispute, based on his findings. The mediation process retains the flexibility of conciliation. However, it encourages a slightly more interventionist role for the mediator. Therefore, it tends to be less open-ended. The mediation process does not expect any party to pull out. This process expects that both parties will accept the decision of the mediator.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Adjudication</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most conditions of contract require the engineer to act impartially. Concern has often been expressed that this may conflict with his other role as the agent of the employer. This has led to the creation of a technique for the resolution of disputes known as adjudication.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract provides that disputes over certain matters be referred to an independent adjudicator. This person is expected to make a quick decision on the matter, which the parties agree to treat as temporarily binding but their eventual rights as determined by arbitration or litigation. The prime objective of this procedure is to enable continuing rather than holding it up until rights and obligations can be finally determined. The basis of this system is for the duration of the contract there is always a person available to whom a dispute can be referred.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This decision is not legally enforceable in the sense that the decision of a judge or arbitrator is enforceable. By signing a contract, which includes a provision of adjudication, the parties are indicating that they intend to accept the adjudicator’s decision.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method is used in very large contracts. The persons in the DAB are called “Members”. There are one or three suitably qualified persons in a DAB. Each of the members shall be fluent in the language for communication defined in the contract. Also, they shall be professional and experienced in the type of construction involved in the works and with the interpretation of contractual documents. If the number of adjudicators in the DAB is not stated, the DAB shall comprise three persons. And, one of the adjudicators shall serve as chairman.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the mutual agreement of both parties, the appointment of any member may be terminated. But, the Employer or the contractor alone cannot remove members. If not agreed mutually by both parties, the DAB shall expire when the discharge shall have become effective.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are so many factors that may initiate a dispute between parties. A dispute may arise between the parties in connection with or arising out of, the contract. It may be due to the execution of the works, or due to a payment certificate, or determination, instruction, opinion, or valuation of the Engineer. If so, any party to the agreement may refer the dispute in writing to the DAB for its decision, sending copies to the other party and the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Within 84 days after receiving such reference, or within such other period as may be proposed by the DAB and approved by both parties, the DAB shall be given its decision, which shall be reasoned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision shall be binding on both parties. The parties shall give effect to the decision unless and until it is revised in an amicable settlement or an arbitral award.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If any party is dissatisfied with the DAB’s decision, then the party may, within 28 days after receiving the decision, give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction. And, also they can express their intention to commence arbitration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the DAB fails to give its decision within 84 days, then parties to the agreement may give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction and intention to commence arbitration. However, it shall be within 28 days after the expiration of 84 days period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the DAB’s decision, if no notice of dissatisfaction has been given by either party within 28 days after the DAB’s decision, then the decision shall become final and binding upon both parties.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>ARBITRATION</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally to follow arbitration the provision must be made specifically in the contract. ICTAD conditions of contract outline the procedure for the settlement of disputes;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“if the contractor believes that a decision taken by the engineer was either outside the authority given to the engineer or the decision was wrongly taken, the decision shall be referred to the adjudicator. The adjudicator shall give a decision within 28 days. Either party may refer a decision of the adjudicator to an arbitrator within 28 days of the adjudicator’s decision. If neither party refers the dispute to arbitration within the 28 days, the adjudicator’s decision will be final and binding.”</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration is often more suitable than the court proceedings, because of the highly involved technical issues which have to be decided on, since it is usual to have as the arbitrator, a person with experience and knowledge of construction works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Special features of Arbitration:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Resolve dispute finally - cannot refer back to courts</li><li>Is relatively quick</li><li>Generally less expensive than full litigation- but not necessarily</li><li>Is private and not open to public&nbsp;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Powers of Arbitrators</strong>: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator has powers to:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Open-up arbitration;</li><li>Control proceedings-documentary evidence, oral question, presentations by parties;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li><li>Order protective measures - parties are required to disclose any document which arbitrator or other party requires;</li><li>Conduct hearing;</li><li>Summon witnesses;</li><li>Review engineer’s &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\n<ol>\n<li>Decision;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Opinion;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Direction;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Certificate;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Valuation&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n</ol>\n</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Selection of Arbitrators &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration Act of Sri Lanka allows the parties to determine the number of arbitrators.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where such determination is not made, the number of arbitrators shall be three.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Procedure for hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Summon parties to preliminary meetings;</li><li>Will listen to basic information about the dispute(s);</li><li>Will disclose the way of hearing;</li><li>Order one party to answer other parties questions;</li><li>Order parties to lodge documents with him.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>During the hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>will fix the date and venue of hearing;</li><li>Will decide the order of hearing;</li><li>Will order submission in writing when required;</li><li>May order to submit a list of witnesses;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unlike the judges, the arbitrator can ask questions himself.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>After hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator can take a reasonable time to consider his award. He can recall evidence and can refer to legal points. The arbitrator will deliver the written award to both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator’s fee is met by both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Objection for Arbitration award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>No party can object to the award made by the arbitrator(s). The arbitrator’s decision is final.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The only area that the award can be taken to court action is on the way of conducting the hearing of arbitration or the arbitrator is at a fault. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Arbitration Agreement&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement may be in the form of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Arbitration clause in the contract; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- In the form of a separate agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement shall be in writing. When a party to an arbitration agreement, institute legal proceedings in a court against another in respect of a matter agreed to be submitted for arbitration, the court shall have no jurisdiction to hear and determine such matter if the second party objects to the court.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Composition of Arbitral Tribunal</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall determine the number of arbitrators of an arbitral tribunal, subject to the provision in the arbitration agreement. When no such determination is made in the agreement, the number shall be three. Where the parties appoint an even number of arbitrators, arbitrators so appointed shall jointly appoint an additional arbitrator who shall be the chairman.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall be free to agree on a procedure for appointing the arbitrators, subject to the above, and include in the agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conduct of Arbitration Procedure</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall deal with the dispute submitted, impartially and expeditiously. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall afford all the parties, an opportunity, of presenting their cases in writing or orally and to examine all the documents and materials furnished by other parties or any other person.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties can select and agree mutually on the place of arbitration. Failing such agreement, the place shall be determined by the tribunal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unless a contrary intention is expressed in the agreement, any decision made in the course of proceedings, by a majority of the tribunal and failing a majority, the decision of the arbitrator appointed by the other arbitrators, or when there is a Chairman, the decision of such Chairman, shall be binding,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall be made in writing and shall be signed by the arbitrators constituting the tribunal. For a tribunal consisting of more than one arbitrator, the signature of the majority shall suffice, stating the reason for any omitted signature.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A copy of the award is delivered to each party.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall give the reason on which it is based.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'DISPUTES IN CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS', 'Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'disputes-in-construction-contracts', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:50:41', '2021-01-14 16:20:41', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2020/12/18/disputes-in-construction-contracts/', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1374, 1, '2021-01-15 19:29:42', '2021-01-15 13:59:42', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc. It prevents bidders in the construction industry from submitting more realistic and competitive bidding. It increases the risk from the bidders’ point of view. Therefore, construction experts thought it is sensible to compute the cost of contracts on present prices, keeping provisions of price adjustment for probable fluctuations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of preparation of a bid, the bidders do not have a method to predict the future material, labour, and plant prices. Also, they do not willing to take the risk and prepare bids at current market prices and absorb the extra cost. So, they try to pass the risk to the client. If there is no way to recover the additional cost due to the increase in materials, plant, and labour prices, they simply include mark-up for rates or to the bid at the bidding stage. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, there is no firm methodology available for predicting this mark-up accurately. It is only guesswork. If the contractor adds a high mark-up, most probably he will not be selected. Any other contractor who has used a lower mark-up or zero mark-ups will be selected. Then, it may lead to a cash problem from the contractor’s side. As a result, it causes delays of work and ultimately the employer also suffers. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Remedy available</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction professionals can avoid these situations by introducing a price fluctuation clause in the tender document. Then the bidders have the opportunity to submit a realistic bid without adding an arbitrary mark-up for escalation. It reduces the risk of the bidder. hence it is a benefit for the bidder. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of implementation, the contractor is reimbursed for any additional expenditure due to price escalation. The employer also gets benefits from the price escalation clause.  The bid he receives from the bidder is very realistic. In addition, he has to pay an additional sum only if there are increases in the cost of resources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Price Variation reimbursement methods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>1. Conventional / Traditional Method</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditionally, price fluctuation was paid only for specified inputs. Computations were based on the actual consumption of such inputs during the period of each interim valuation. Also, the base price of specified materials should be mentioned in the contract document. The contractor has to submit purchasing invoices of such materials with the interim valuation.  Adjustment to the contract price was calculated by applying the difference between the basic price and current price and the actual consumption.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Disadvantages of the conventional method;</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- This method limits the reimbursement to specified inputs only. Risks of prediction of other inputs were still with the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Calculation was laborious and tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The contractor had to collect many documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Certification of claim also was very tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Example of computation of price fluctuation in the traditional method</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1371,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/18-1.png\" alt=\"Example of computation of price fluctuation in the traditional method\" class=\"wp-image-1371\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>2. Formula Method (used in Sri Lanka)</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula method introduced by the ICTAD (CEDA) provides a mechanism for contract price adjustment due to open market escalation in specified construction inputs such as major building materials, hire charges of plants, and wages for the labour. When we compare this method with the traditional method, computation using the formula is much easier. Also, it needs lesser documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1372,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/18-2.png\" alt=\"Formula Method (used in Sri Lanka)\" class=\"wp-image-1372\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>F &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Price variation for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Valuation of work for the interim valuation period (Work done + 80% Materials at site)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V<sub>na</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Value of non-adjustable elements for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Input percentage of input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Base index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xc</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Current index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the interim bill, we can find the values of V and V<sub>na</sub>. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> values are available in the Tender document.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> and I<sub>xc</sub> values are available in the respective monthly statistical bulletin of ICTAD (CEDA).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Price Fluctuations', 'The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '908-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-15 19:29:42', '2021-01-15 13:59:42', '', 908, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/908-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1456, 1, '2021-06-19 12:26:03', '2021-06-19 06:56:03', '<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the present fast-paced highly industrialized age, many of the products in the market are increasingly being mass-produced in factories by machines. However, a building still remains as one of the few handcrafted products put together piece by piece by skilled and unskilled workers.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost. Therefore, the labour component is considered a very important area in a construction project.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building is a very complex product, made up of many different systems, such as the structural system, exterior enclosure system, interior finishes, plumbing, and HVAC system, etc. These systems can be separated into many other subsystems and sub-sub systems. For example, beam concreting can be divided into the formwork, reinforcements, and concreting. Again, reinforcement can be sub-sub divided into cutting, bending, placing in place, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building construction project can be divided into many work packages. A work package can then be allocated to and accomplished by an individual worker or a crew. A crew can be described as a group of workers. These workers may be from the same trade or may be from a combination of many different trades. Different tasks involved in the construction of a building need many types of craftsmen from various trades.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Labor’s production rates or Productivity</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A production rate is defined as the number of units of work completed by a worker in a definite time period. Production rates may specify in the form of time in man-hours or man-days necessary to produce a specified number of units of work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The time that a labor will consume in performing a unit of work varies between labors, between projects, with climatic conditions, job supervision, complexities of the operation, and due to many other factors. For example, it may require more time for erecting a shutter for stairs than for a beam.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the production rate is substituted by the term productivity. Productivity is the ratio between input and the respective output.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In construction, the labour input can be expressed as the work hours of a worker or a crew. For example, it may be 4 hours of bricklaying gang.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The output can be stated as the amount of work completed. For instance, it may be expressed as laying 500 bricks or may be expressed in square meters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, construction productivity is defined as the quantity of work produced in a particular time period by a worker or a specific crew. In other words, it is the quantity of construction output units produced in a given amount of time or a unit time.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for productivity is presented as follows;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Construction productivity </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work produced / time duration</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>If a bricklaying crew can lay 560 bricks in 8 hours, then, the related construction productivity is 560 bricks divided by 8 hours, which are 70 bricks per bricklaying crew per hour.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>With compared to most of the other items associated with monetary factors, labour productivity is highly variable. It can fluctuate wildly. For accurate estimation, an estimator or a quantity surveyor must have good historical records of the output of his workers, require a lot of experience, in addition to theoretical knowledge.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Productivity sources</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity rates can also be determined from already published sources from different institutions, such as Construction Cost Data.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sample norms of some common work items are given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Description</strong></td><td><strong>Unit</strong></td><td><strong>Quantity</strong></td><td><strong>Skilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Unskilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Cement (50 kg bags)</strong></td><td><strong>Sand (m</strong><strong><sup>3</sup></strong><strong>)</strong></td><td><strong>Metal (20 mm)</strong></td><td><strong>Bricks (nr)</strong></td><td><strong>Small plants (days)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>2.55</td><td>6.20</td><td>7.00</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.97</td><td>-</td><td>0.83</td></tr><tr><td>Brick Work</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>1.10</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.40</td><td>-</td><td>540</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cement plaster</td><td>m<sup>2</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.02</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption><em>However, the above norms do not provide the crew types associated with a particular work item.</em></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity must be presented in labor hours. Then, the record can be normalized.&nbsp; Therefore, it is not subjected to the variability in project locations and prevailing wage rates. In this way, unit labor costs for the contractor’s own operating area can be easily developed by multiplying local wage rates (which includes all other benefits) by the productivity rate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A contractor determines that the unit productivity for painting a wall is 0.55 hours per square meter. If the wage rate including other benefits is LKR 250 per hour, the unit labour cost become (0.55 hours per square meter x LKR 250 per hour) = LKR 137.50 per square meter.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Estimating work duration</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determining the total work duration for an activity or a task involves knowledge of the quantity of work required for the task and the production rate for the specific crew that will be performing the work. The quantity of work related to the material quantity can be determined by the quantity take-off. A better approach to the estimation of activity time duration is to maintain historical records of the particular activity, and rely on the average duration from the experience in making new duration estimates. Since the scope of activities is unlikely to be identical between different projects, unit production rates are typically employed for this purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duration of an activity may be estimated as shown below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Work duration </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work / number of crews × production rate</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Find the duration of interior and exterior painting activities with quantities of 550 m<sup>2</sup> &amp; 406 m<sup>2</sup> respectively, using crews of 11 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours &amp; 14 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours for the interior &amp; exterior painting activities respectively.&nbsp; (Assume the same crew is used for both works).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>Interior painting duration = 550 / 11 = 50 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Exterior painting duration = 406 / 14 = 29 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total work hours = 79 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, the quantity of work to be completed can be determined from the architectural drawings of the project. The number of crews working is decided by the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor depending on resources available as well as the work programme.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many cases, the number or amount of resources applied to particular activity may be modified after considering the resulting project plan and work schedule. Historical records in the particular construction organization can also provide data for the estimation of productivities.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having defined the duration of a given work means that the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor has already defined the number of resources that will be employed in a particular work. After knowing the activity time duration and resources to be employed, it is easy to estimate the direct cost of the activity. Then, the three elements of an activity, the time duration, type of resources, and cost of procuring resources for the activity form the construction method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The Basic principle for estimating labor costs</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor costs in construction are determined by two factors: <strong><em>monetary &amp;</em></strong> <strong><em>productivity</em></strong>. The monetary factor is related to hourly wage rates plus other benefits. Estimating the constituents of the monetary factor is more difficult in construction than in other industries. This is due to the different types of work and skills involved in construction. Although the computational process of this component seems complex &amp; tedious, it is only a matter of accounting as the needed numbers (such as wage rates, fringe benefits, etc.) are readily available.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method for calculating the total cost of labor is relatively simple. It requires the knowledge of the total work hours or labor hours needed to perform all the tasks &amp; then applying the corresponding wage rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating the total cost of labor is as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Total cost of labor </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>total work hour × wage rate </em></strong><strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A welder works 10 hrs/day, 6 days/week. A basic salary of LKR 350 / hr is paid for all straight-time work, 8 hrs/day, 5 days/week. An overtime rate of one time &amp; one-half is paid for all hours over 8 hrs/day, Monday through Friday, &amp; double time is paid for all Saturday work. The meal allowance is LKR 200 per day. Calculate the average hourly cost to employ the welder.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em>:</em><em> </em><em></em>Actual hours = 10 × 6 = 60 hrs&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pay hours = weekly straight time + weekly overtime + Saturday overtime&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= (8 x 5 × 1) + (2 x 1.5 x 5) + (10 × 2)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= 75 hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Average hourly pay = (75/60) × LKR 350 = LKR 437.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Meal allowance &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; = (LKR 200 x 6) / 60 = LKR 20 / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the average hourly cost = LKR (437.50 + 20) / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 457.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Assume that a crew for a work item includes three bricklayers (masons) &amp; two helpers. The crew works for three days (8 hrs/day) to complete the work package. The wage rate for each bricklayer is LKR 337.50 / hr &amp; each helper is LKR 260.00 / hr. Find the total cost of the crew for the work item.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total cost = (3 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 337.50</em>) + (2 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 260.00</em>)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 36,780&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the productivity of a specific work crew is stated in man-hours/unit, and not in units/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hours/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>More Examples</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>If the daily production rate for a crew that works in an activity is 175 units/day and the total crew cost per day is LKR 18,000.00. The material needed for daily work is 4.5 units at LKR 10,000.00 /unit.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a. Calculate the time and cost it takes the crew to finish 1400 units.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b. Calculate the total unit cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Consider an eight hour work day).</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em><em> </em><em>Duration</em><em> </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Quantity / (production per unit time x number of crews)&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>1400 / (175 x 1)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em>Cost (labour cost)</em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Duration (units of time) x Crew cost per unit of time&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days x LKR 18,000 per day</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Total direct cost </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000 + (4.5 units of material x LKR 10,000 per day x</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>8 days)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR (144,000 + 360,000)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 504,000</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Unit cost </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>total cost / quantity&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 504,000.00 / 1400&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 360.00 / unit&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the productivity of a specific crew expressed in man-hours per unit, not in units per day. For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hour/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way, it can be applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>What is the duration in days to install 600 square meters of walls shuttering if:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Crew of 2 carpenters is used with output of 200 square meters/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Productivity is measured as 0.08 man-hour/square meter. Number of carpenters = 3, and number of working hours/day = 8 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em> <em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 / 200 </em><em></em><em>= </em><em>3 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Total man-hours needed </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 × 0.08 </em><em></em><em>= 48 man-hours&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(if one man used)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>&nbsp;</em><em> </em><em></em><em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>48 / 8 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= 6 days (if one man used)&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em>Duration using 3 men </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>6 / 3 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em>2 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example - </strong>(use of several resources)&nbsp; - What is the duration of an excavation activity with a quantity of 3000 m<sup>3</sup> using an excavation crew consists of an excavator with a production rate of 200 m<sup>3</sup>/day, a loader of 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day and 3-trucks of 150 m<sup>3</sup>/day? Comment on this crew formation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Using the excavator: Duration = 3000 / 200 = 15 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the loader: Duration = 3000 / 250 = 12 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the 3-trucks: Duration = 3000 / 150 = 20 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The activity duration is governed by the lowest production rate = 20 days.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This is an unbalanced crew where the loader is not working with full capacity; the production rate of this crew could be adjusted by increasing the number of trucks to 4 of 5 trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Then, for a balanced mix of resources, use 1 loader, 1 excavator and 4-trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Accordingly, the activity duration = 3000 / 200 = </em><em>15 days</em><em>.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Labor productivity - Unit rate analysis', 'The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1440-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-19 12:26:03', '2021-06-19 06:56:03', '', 1440, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1456', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1196, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:20', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1196', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1196/', 1, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1197, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1197', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1197/', 24, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1198, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1198', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1198/', 60, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1199, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1199', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1199/', 5, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1200, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1200', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1200/', 4, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1201, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1201', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1201/', 71, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1202, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1202', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1202/', 72, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1203, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1203', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1203/', 47, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1204, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1204', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1204/', 69, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1205, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1205', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1205/', 40, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1206, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1206', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1206/', 44, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1207, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1207', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1207/', 6, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1208, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1208', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1208/', 45, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1209, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1209', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1209/', 10, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1210, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1210', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1210/', 8, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1211, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1211', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1211/', 7, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1212, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1212', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1212/', 43, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1213, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:23', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1213', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1213/', 11, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1214, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1214', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1214/', 9, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1215, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1215', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1215/', 12, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1216, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1216', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1216/', 14, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1217, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1217', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1217/', 70, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1218, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1218', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1218/', 41, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1219, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1219', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1219/', 13, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1220, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1220', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1220/', 42, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1221, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1221', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1221/', 36, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1222, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1222', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1222/', 46, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1223, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1223', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1223/', 39, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1224, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1224', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1224/', 38, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1225, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-01-14 12:05:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1225', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1225/', 37, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1228, 1, '2021-01-14 12:11:38', '2021-01-14 12:11:38', '', 'Civil engineering Lectures icon', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'civil-engineering-lectures-icon', '', '', '2021-01-14 12:11:51', '2021-01-14 12:11:51', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Civil-engineering-Lectures-icon.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1229, 1, '2021-01-14 12:11:57', '2021-01-14 12:11:57', 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-icon.png', 'cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-icon.png', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'cropped-civil-engineering-lectures-icon-png', '', '', '2021-01-14 12:11:57', '2021-01-14 12:11:57', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-icon.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1231, 1, '2021-01-14 12:12:14', '2021-01-14 12:12:14', '', 'Civil engineering Lectures logo', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'civil-engineering-lectures-logo', '', '', '2021-01-14 12:12:23', '2021-01-14 12:12:23', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Civil-engineering-Lectures-logo.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1232, 1, '2021-01-14 12:12:38', '2021-01-14 12:12:38', 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-logo.png', 'cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-logo.png', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'cropped-civil-engineering-lectures-logo-png', '', '', '2021-01-14 12:12:38', '2021-01-14 12:12:38', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/cropped-Civil-engineering-Lectures-logo.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1233, 1, '2021-01-14 12:20:43', '2021-01-14 12:20:43', '', 'Default Kit', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'default-kit', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?elementor_library=default-kit', 0, 'elementor_library', '', 0),
(1234, 1, '2021-01-14 12:41:26', '2021-01-14 12:41:26', '', 'Civil engineering Lectures icon', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'c-dustin-91aqt9p4mo8-unsplash', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:15:57', '2021-01-14 13:15:57', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/c-dustin-91AQt9p4Mo8-unsplash.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1448, 1, '2021-06-19 11:41:53', '2021-06-19 06:11:53', '', 'sky-clouds-construction-brick-layer-78113', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'sky-clouds-construction-brick-layer-78113', '', '', '2021-06-19 11:41:53', '2021-06-19 06:11:53', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/sky-clouds-construction-brick-layer-78113.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1449, 1, '2021-06-19 11:50:05', '2021-06-19 06:20:05', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the present fast-paced highly industrialized age, many of the products in the market are increasingly being mass-produced in factories by machines. However, a building still remains as one of the few handcrafted products put together piece by piece by skilled and unskilled workers.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost. Therefore, the labour component is considered a very important area in a construction project.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building is a very complex product, made up of many different systems, such as the structural system, exterior enclosure system, interior finishes, plumbing, and HVAC system, etc. These systems can be separated into many other subsystems and sub-sub systems. For example, beam concreting can be divided into the formwork, reinforcements, and concreting. Again, reinforcement can be sub-sub divided into cutting, bending, placing in place, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building construction project can be divided into many work packages. A work package can then be allocated to and accomplished by an individual worker or a crew. A crew can be described as a group of workers. These workers may be from the same trade or may be from a combination of many different trades. Different tasks involved in the construction of a building need many types of craftsmen from various trades. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Labor’s production rates or Productivity</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A production rate is defined as the number of units of work completed by a worker in a definite time period. Production rates may specify in the form of time in man-hours or man-days necessary to produce a specified number of units of work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The time that a labor will consume in performing a unit of work varies between labors, between projects, with climatic conditions, job supervision, complexities of the operation, and due to many other factors. For example, it may require more time for erecting a shutter for stairs than for a beam.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the production rate is substituted by the term productivity. Productivity is the ratio between input and the respective output.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In construction, the labour input can be expressed as the work hours of a worker or a crew. For example, it may be 4 hours of bricklaying gang.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The output can be stated as the amount of work completed. For instance, it may be expressed as laying 500 bricks or may be expressed in square meters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, construction productivity is defined as the quantity of work produced in a particular time period by a worker or a specific crew. In other words, it is the quantity of construction output units produced in a given amount of time or a unit time.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for productivity is presented as follows;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Construction productivity </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work produced / time duration</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>If a bricklaying crew can lay 560 bricks in 8 hours, then, the related construction productivity is 560 bricks divided by 8 hours, which are 70 bricks per bricklaying crew per hour.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>With compared to most of the other items associated with monetary factors, labour productivity is highly variable. It can fluctuate wildly. For accurate estimation, an estimator or a quantity surveyor must have good historical records of the output of his workers, require a lot of experience, in addition to theoretical knowledge.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Productivity sources</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity rates can also be determined from already published sources from different institutions, such as Construction Cost Data.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sample norms of some common work items are given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Description</strong></td><td><strong>Unit</strong></td><td><strong>Quantity</strong></td><td><strong>Skilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Unskilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Cement (50 kg bags)</strong></td><td><strong>Sand (m</strong><strong><sup>3</sup></strong><strong>)</strong></td><td><strong>Metal (20 mm)</strong></td><td><strong>Bricks (nr)</strong></td><td><strong>Small plants (days)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>2.55</td><td>6.20</td><td>7.00</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.97</td><td>-</td><td>0.83</td></tr><tr><td>Brick Work</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>1.10</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.40</td><td>-</td><td>540</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cement plaster</td><td>m<sup>2</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.02</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption><em>However, the above norms do not provide the crew types associated with a particular work item.</em></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity must be presented in labor hours. Then, the record can be normalized.&nbsp; Therefore, it is not subjected to the variability in project locations and prevailing wage rates. In this way, unit labor costs for the contractor’s own operating area can be easily developed by multiplying local wage rates (which includes all other benefits) by the productivity rate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A contractor determines that the unit productivity for painting a wall is 0.55 hours per square meter. If the wage rate including other benefits is LKR 250 per hour, the unit labour cost become (0.55 hours per square meter x LKR 250 per hour) = LKR 137.50 per square meter.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Estimating work duration</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determining the total work duration for an activity or a task involves knowledge of the quantity of work required for the task and the production rate for the specific crew that will be performing the work. The quantity of work related to the material quantity can be determined by the quantity take-off. A better approach to the estimation of activity time duration is to maintain historical records of the particular activity, and rely on the average duration from the experience in making new duration estimates. Since the scope of activities is unlikely to be identical between different projects, unit production rates are typically employed for this purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duration of an activity may be estimated as shown below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Work duration </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work / number of crews × production rate</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Find the duration of interior and exterior painting activities with quantities of 550 m<sup>2</sup> &amp; 406 m<sup>2</sup> respectively, using crews of 11 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours &amp; 14 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours for the interior &amp; exterior painting activities respectively.&nbsp; (Assume the same crew is used for both works).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>Interior painting duration = 550 / 11 = 50 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Exterior painting duration = 406 / 14 = 29 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total work hours = 79 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, the quantity of work to be completed can be determined from the architectural drawings of the project. The number of crews working is decided by the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor depending on resources available as well as the work programme.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many cases, the number or amount of resources applied to particular activity may be modified after considering the resulting project plan and work schedule. Historical records in the particular construction organization can also provide data for the estimation of productivities.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having defined the duration of a given work means that the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor has already defined the number of resources that will be employed in a particular work. After knowing the activity time duration and resources to be employed, it is easy to estimate the direct cost of the activity. Then, the three elements of an activity, the time duration, type of resources, and cost of procuring resources for the activity form the construction method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>The Basic principle for estimating labor costs</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor costs in construction are determined by two factors: <strong><em>monetary &amp;</em></strong> <strong><em>productivity</em></strong>. The monetary factor is related to hourly wage rates plus other benefits. Estimating the constituents of the monetary factor is more difficult in construction than in other industries. This is due to the different types of work and skills involved in construction. Although the computational process of this component seems complex &amp; tedious, it is only a matter of accounting as the needed numbers (such as wage rates, fringe benefits, etc.) are readily available.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method for calculating the total cost of labor is relatively simple. It requires the knowledge of the total work hours or labor hours needed to perform all the tasks &amp; then applying the corresponding wage rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating the total cost of labor is as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Total cost of labor </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>total work hour × wage rate </em></strong><strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A welder works 10 hrs/day, 6 days/week. A basic salary of LKR 350 / hr is paid for all straight-time work, 8 hrs/day, 5 days/week. An overtime rate of one time &amp; one-half is paid for all hours over 8 hrs/day, Monday through Friday, &amp; double time is paid for all Saturday work. The meal allowance is LKR 200 per day. Calculate the average hourly cost to employ the welder.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em>:</em><em> </em><em></em>Actual hours = 10 × 6 = 60 hrs&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pay hours = weekly straight time + weekly overtime + Saturday overtime </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= (8 x 5 × 1) + (2 x 1.5 x 5) + (10 × 2) </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= 75 hr </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Average hourly pay = (75/60) × LKR 350 = LKR 437.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Meal allowance &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; = (LKR 200 x 6) / 60 = LKR 20 / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the average hourly cost = LKR (437.50 + 20) / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 457.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Assume that a crew for a work item includes three bricklayers (masons) &amp; two helpers. The crew works for three days (8 hrs/day) to complete the work package. The wage rate for each bricklayer is LKR 337.50 / hr &amp; each helper is LKR 260.00 / hr. Find the total cost of the crew for the work item.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total cost = (3 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 337.50</em>) + (2 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 260.00</em>)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 36,780&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the productivity of a specific work crew is stated in man-hours/unit, and not in units/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hours/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>More Examples</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>If the daily production rate for a crew that works in an activity is 175 units/day and the total crew cost per day is LKR 18,000.00. The material needed for daily work is 4.5 units at LKR 10,000.00 /unit.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a. Calculate the time and cost it takes the crew to finish 1400 units.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b. Calculate the total unit cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Consider an eight hour work day).</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em><em> </em><em>Duration</em><em> </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Quantity / (production per unit time x number of crews)&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>1400 / (175 x 1)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em>Cost (labour cost)</em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Duration (units of time) x Crew cost per unit of time&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days x LKR 18,000 per day</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Total direct cost </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000 + (4.5 units of material x LKR 10,000 per day x</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>8 days)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR (144,000 + 360,000)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 504,000</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Unit cost </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>total cost / quantity&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 504,000.00 / 1400&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 360.00 / unit&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the productivity of a specific crew expressed in man-hours per unit, not in units per day. For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hour/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way, it can be applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>What is the duration in days to install 600 square meters of walls shuttering if:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Crew of 2 carpenters is used with output of 200 square meters/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Productivity is measured as 0.08 man-hour/square meter. Number of carpenters = 3, and number of working hours/day = 8 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em> <em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 / 200 </em><em></em><em>= </em><em>3 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Total man-hours needed </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 × 0.08 </em><em></em><em>= 48 man-hours&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(if one man used)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>&nbsp;</em><em> </em><em></em><em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>48 / 8 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= 6 days (if one man used)&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em>Duration using 3 men </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>6 / 3 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em>2 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example - </strong>(use of several resources)&nbsp; - What is the duration of an excavation activity with a quantity of 3000 m<sup>3</sup> using an excavation crew consists of an excavator with a production rate of 200 m<sup>3</sup>/day, a loader of 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day and 3-trucks of 150 m<sup>3</sup>/day? Comment on this crew formation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Using the excavator: Duration = 3000 / 200 = 15 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the loader: Duration = 3000 / 250 = 12 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the 3-trucks: Duration = 3000 / 150 = 20 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The activity duration is governed by the lowest production rate = 20 days.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This is an unbalanced crew where the loader is not working with full capacity; the production rate of this crew could be adjusted by increasing the number of trucks to 4 of 5 trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Then, for a balanced mix of resources, use 1 loader, 1 excavator and 4-trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Accordingly, the activity duration = 3000 / 200 = </em><em>15 days</em><em>.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Labor productivity - Unit rate analysis', 'The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1440-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-19 11:50:05', '2021-06-19 06:20:05', '', 1440, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1449', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1246, 1, '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '', 'Default Kit', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1233-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '2021-01-14 13:10:38', '', 1233, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1233-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1251, 1, '2021-01-14 13:25:48', '2021-01-14 13:25:48', '<h2>contact us</h2>		\n		<p>Need an expert? you are more than welcomed to leave your contact info and we will be in touch shortly</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Visit us\n				</h3>\n								<p>\n</p>\n			<p>22, Thambahena, Keppetipola, Makehelwala</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Call us\n				</h3>\n								<p>\n</p>\n			<p>+94 (0) 773660679</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Contact us\n				</h3>\n			<p>ranjith1kn@gmail.com</p>		\n			<iframe frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" marginheight=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" src=\"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=Makehelwala&amp;t=m&amp;z=14&amp;output=embed&amp;iwloc=near\" title=\"Makehelwala\" aria-label=\"Makehelwala\"></iframe>		\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Facebook-f\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Twitter\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Pinterest\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Instagram\n											</a>', 'Contact', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'contact', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?page_id=1251', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(1252, 1, '2021-01-14 13:25:44', '2021-01-14 13:25:44', '', 'Contact', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1251-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:25:44', '2021-01-14 13:25:44', '', 1251, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1251-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1253, 1, '2021-01-14 13:27:28', '2021-01-14 13:27:28', '', 'Civlengineeringlectures.com', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'top-cover-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:47:09', '2021-01-14 16:17:09', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/top-cover.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1255, 1, '2021-01-14 13:31:54', '2021-01-14 13:31:54', '', 'Contact', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1251-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:31:54', '2021-01-14 13:31:54', '', 1251, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1251-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1256, 1, '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '', 'Contact', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1251-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '', 1251, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1251-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1257, 1, '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '<h2>contact us</h2>		\n		<p>Need an expert? you are more than welcomed to leave your contact info and we will be in touch shortly</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Visit us\n				</h3>\n								<p>\n</p>\n			<p>22, Thambahena, Keppetipola, Makehelwala</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Call us\n				</h3>\n								<p>\n</p>\n			<p>+94 (0) 773660679</p>		\n				<h3>\n					Contact us\n				</h3>\n			<p>ranjith1kn@gmail.com</p>		\n			<iframe frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" marginheight=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" src=\"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=Makehelwala&amp;t=m&amp;z=14&amp;output=embed&amp;iwloc=near\" title=\"Makehelwala\" aria-label=\"Makehelwala\"></iframe>		\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Facebook-f\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Twitter\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Pinterest\n											</a>\n					<a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n						Instagram\n											</a>', 'Contact', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1251-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '2021-01-14 13:31:55', '', 1251, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1251-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1260, 1, '2021-01-14 13:53:24', '2021-01-14 13:53:24', '', 'Civlengineeringlectures.com', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'fbfesvejgog-emanuel-hahn-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:42:31', '2021-01-14 16:12:31', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/fbfesvejgog-emanuel-hahn.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1261, 1, '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '', 'groomsman3.jpg', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'groomsman3-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/groomsman3.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1262, 1, '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '', 'lhtqjazuprq-breather.jpg', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'lhtqjazuprq-breather-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '2021-01-14 13:53:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/lhtqjazuprq-breather.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1263, 1, '2021-01-14 13:53:26', '2021-01-14 13:53:26', '', '9l_326fiszk-luca-bravo.jpg', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '9l_326fiszk-luca-bravo-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 13:53:26', '2021-01-14 13:53:26', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/9l_326fiszk-luca-bravo.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1265, 1, '2021-01-14 19:36:26', '2021-01-14 14:06:26', '<h2>About</h2>		\n												<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />														\n		<p>I am Ranjith Ekanayake, a retired civil engineer having 38 years of working experience plus more than 23 years of lecturing experience in parallel. My effort is to make civil engineering resources available and accessible to anybody having an interest in this field, especially young students. I am originally a civil engineering diploma holder, later acquired a diploma in the field of public procurement and contract administration. In the meantime, I have qualified and fulfilled the requirements to obtain a post- graduate diploma in construction law and dispute resolution. Also, I have an MBA for which my thesis was based on service quality in the area of marketing management.</p><p>During my career, I have spent nearly 10 years in very remote areas engaging in the largest multi-development project of our country. Then, I had the opportunity to work another 8 years in the operation and maintenance field of large dams and reservoirs in the country.</p><p>For the latter part of my career, about 20 years, I worked in the engineering department of a government bank, during which I mainly engaged in procurement and contract administration activities. Additionally, during my free time, I shared my knowledge and experience with younger generations who wish to enter the construction field. My goal is not just to create a blog, but to spread my knowledge and experience for a better future with enhanced knowledge in engineering and technology, to create the society we live in an even better and safer place.</p><p> </p>', 'About us', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'about-us', '', '', '2021-06-07 14:12:39', '2021-06-07 08:42:39', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?page_id=1265', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(1266, 1, '2021-01-14 19:36:26', '2021-01-14 14:06:26', '', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 19:36:26', '2021-01-14 14:06:26', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1267, 1, '2021-01-14 19:42:24', '2021-01-14 14:12:24', '', 'profile-picture.jpg', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'profile-picture-jpg', '', '', '2021-01-14 19:42:24', '2021-01-14 14:12:24', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1268, 1, '2024-07-31 01:48:33', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1268', '', '', '2024-07-31 01:48:33', '2024-07-30 20:18:33', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1268/', 107, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1269, 1, '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1270, 1, '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1275, 1, '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p> </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1271, 1, '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"600\" height=\"900\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg 600w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-200x300.jpg 200w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-300x450.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p>Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 19:43:01', '2021-01-14 14:13:01', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1272, 1, '2021-01-14 20:58:34', '2021-01-14 15:28:34', '', 'Ranjith Ekanayake', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'whatsapp-image-2021-01-14-at-20-57-52', '', '', '2021-01-14 20:58:49', '2021-01-14 15:28:49', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1273, 1, '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"600\" height=\"900\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg 600w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-200x300.jpg 200w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-300x450.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p>Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1274, 1, '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"600\" height=\"900\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture.jpg 600w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-200x300.jpg 200w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/profile-picture-300x450.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p>Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 20:59:42', '2021-01-14 15:29:42', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1265-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1276, 1, '2021-01-14 21:08:06', '2021-01-14 15:38:06', '<h1>Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake</h1><p>At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.</p><p>If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.</p><p>This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the <a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info/\">Privacy Policy Generator</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\">Free Privacy Policy Generator</a>.</p><h2>Consent</h2><p>By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.</p><h2>Information we collect</h2><p>The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.</p><p>If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.</p><p>When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.</p><h2>How we use your information</h2><p>We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:</p><ul><li>Provide, operate, and maintain our webste</li><li>Improve, personalize, and expand our webste</li><li>Understand and analyze how you use our webste</li><li>Develop new products, services, features, and functionality</li><li>Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes</li><li>Send you emails</li><li>Find and prevent fraud</li></ul><h2>Log Files</h2><p>Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.</p><h2>Cookies and Web Beacons</h2><p>Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.</p><p>For more general information on cookies, please read <a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\">\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent</a>.</p><h2>Advertising Partners Privacy Policies</h2><p>You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.</p><p>Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.</p><p>Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.</p><h2>Third Party Privacy Policies</h2><p>Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options.</p><p>You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.</p><h2>CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)</h2><p>Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:</p><p>Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.</p><p>Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.</p><p>Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.</p><p>If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.</p><h2>GDPR Data Protection Rights</h2><p>We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:</p><p>The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.</p><p>The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.</p><p>The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.</p><p>If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.</p><h2>Children\'s Information</h2><p>Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.</p><p>Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'privacy-policy', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?page_id=1276', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(1277, 1, '2021-01-14 21:01:47', '2021-01-14 15:31:47', '', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:01:47', '2021-01-14 15:31:47', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1279, 1, '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '<h2>Privacy Policy</h2>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1280, 1, '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '<h2>Privacy Policy</h2>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1287, 1, '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '<h1>Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake</h1><p>At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.</p><p>If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.</p><p>This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the <a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info/\">Privacy Policy Generator</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\">Free Privacy Policy Generator</a>.</p><h2>Consent</h2><p>By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.</p><h2>Information we collect</h2><p>The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.</p><p>If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.</p><p>When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.</p><h2>How we use your information</h2><p>We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:</p><ul><li>Provide, operate, and maintain our webste</li><li>Improve, personalize, and expand our webste</li><li>Understand and analyze how you use our webste</li><li>Develop new products, services, features, and functionality</li><li>Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes</li><li>Send you emails</li><li>Find and prevent fraud</li></ul><h2>Log Files</h2><p>Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.</p><h2>Cookies and Web Beacons</h2><p>Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.</p><p>For more general information on cookies, please read <a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\">\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent</a>.</p><h2>Advertising Partners Privacy Policies</h2><p>You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.</p><p>Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.</p><p>Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.</p><h2>Third Party Privacy Policies</h2><p>Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options.</p><p>You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.</p><h2>CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)</h2><p>Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:</p><p>Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.</p><p>Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.</p><p>Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.</p><p>If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.</p><h2>GDPR Data Protection Rights</h2><p>We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:</p><p>The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.</p><p>The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.</p><p>The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.</p><p>The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.</p><p>If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.</p><h2>Children\'s Information</h2><p>Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.</p><p>Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1281, 1, '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '<h2>Privacy Policy</h2>		\n		<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:10:53', '2021-01-14 15:40:53', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1282, 1, '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '<h2>Privacy Policy</h2>		\n		<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1283, 1, '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '<h2>Privacy Policy</h2>		\n		<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1284, 1, '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:12:03', '2021-01-14 15:42:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1285, 1, '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1286, 1, '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '<p>&lt;h1&gt;Privacy Policy for Ranjith Ekanayake&lt;/h1&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;At Civil Engineering Lectures, accessible from https://civilengineeringlectures.com/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by Civil Engineering Lectures and how we use it.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in Civil Engineering Lectures. This policy is not applicable to any information collected offline or via channels other than this website. Our Privacy Policy was created with the help of the &lt;a href=\"https://www.privacypolicygenerator.info\"&gt;Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/#wizard\"&gt;Free Privacy Policy Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Consent&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;By using our website, you hereby consent to our Privacy Policy and agree to its terms.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Information we collect&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;The personal information that you are asked to provide, and the reasons why you are asked to provide it, will be made clear to you at the point we ask you to provide your personal information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you contact us directly, we may receive additional information about you such as your name, email address, phone number, the contents of the message and/or attachments you may send us, and any other information you may choose to provide.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;When you register for an Account, we may ask for your contact information, including items such as name, company name, address, email address, and telephone number.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;How we use your information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We use the information we collect in various ways, including to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;ul&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Provide, operate, and maintain our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Improve, personalize, and expand our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Understand and analyze how you use our webste&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Develop new products, services, features, and functionality&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Communicate with you, either directly or through one of our partners, including for customer service, to provide you with updates and other information relating to the webste, and for marketing and promotional purposes&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Send you emails&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;li&gt;Find and prevent fraud&lt;/li&gt;</p><p>&lt;/ul&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Log Files&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures follows a standard procedure of using log files. These files log visitors when they visit websites. All hosting companies do this and a part of hosting services\' analytics. The information collected by log files include internet protocol (IP) addresses, browser type, Internet Service Provider (ISP), date and time stamp, referring/exit pages, and possibly the number of clicks. These are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable. The purpose of the information is for analyzing trends, administering the site, tracking users\' movement on the website, and gathering demographic information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Cookies and Web Beacons&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Like any other website, Civil Engineering Lectures uses \'cookies\'. These cookies are used to store information including visitors\' preferences, and the pages on the website that the visitor accessed or visited. The information is used to optimize the users\' experience by customizing our web page content based on visitors\' browser type and/or other information.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;For more general information on cookies, please read &lt;a href=\"https://www.cookieconsent.com/what-are-cookies/\"&gt;\"What Are Cookies\" from Cookie Consent&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Advertising Partners Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;P&gt;You may consult this list to find the Privacy Policy for each of the advertising partners of Civil Engineering Lectures.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Third-party ad servers or ad networks uses technologies like cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons that are used in their respective advertisements and links that appear on Civil Engineering Lectures, which are sent directly to users\' browser. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. These technologies are used to measure the effectiveness of their advertising campaigns and/or to personalize the advertising content that you see on websites that you visit.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Note that Civil Engineering Lectures has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Third Party Privacy Policies&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures\'s Privacy Policy does not apply to other advertisers or websites. Thus, we are advising you to consult the respective Privacy Policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information. It may include their practices and instructions about how to opt-out of certain options. &lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;You can choose to disable cookies through your individual browser options. To know more detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers, it can be found at the browsers\' respective websites.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;CCPA Privacy Rights (Do Not Sell My Personal Information)&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Under the CCPA, among other rights, California consumers have the right to:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that collects a consumer\'s personal data disclose the categories and specific pieces of personal data that a business has collected about consumers.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business delete any personal data about the consumer that a business has collected.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;Request that a business that sells a consumer\'s personal data, not sell the consumer\'s personal data.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;GDPR Data Protection Rights&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;We would like to make sure you are fully aware of all of your data protection rights. Every user is entitled to the following:&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to access – You have the right to request copies of your personal data. We may charge you a small fee for this service.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to rectification – You have the right to request that we correct any information you believe is inaccurate. You also have the right to request that we complete the information you believe is incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to erasure – You have the right to request that we erase your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to restrict processing – You have the right to request that we restrict the processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to object to processing – You have the right to object to our processing of your personal data, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;The right to data portability – You have the right to request that we transfer the data that we have collected to another organization, or directly to you, under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p>&lt;p&gt;If you make a request, we have one month to respond to you. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;h2&gt;Children\'s Information&lt;/h2&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.&lt;/p&gt;</p><p> </p><p>&lt;p&gt;Civil Engineering Lectures does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from children under the age of 13. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website, we strongly encourage you to contact us immediately and we will do our best efforts to promptly remove such information from our records.&lt;/p&gt;</p>', 'Privacy policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1276-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:13:03', '2021-01-14 15:43:03', '', 1276, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1276-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1288, 1, '2021-01-14 21:17:37', '2021-01-14 15:47:37', '<h2><strong>Terms and Conditions</strong></h2><p>Welcome to Civil Engineering Lectures!</p><p>These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of Ranjith Ekanayake\'s Website, located at https://civilengineeringlectures.com/.</p><p>By accessing this website we assume you accept these terms and conditions. Do not continue to use Civil Engineering Lectures if you do not agree to take all of the terms and conditions stated on this page.</p><p>The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement and Disclaimer Notice and all Agreements: \"Client\", \"You\" and \"Your\" refers to you, the person log on this website and compliant to the Company’s terms and conditions. \"The Company\", \"Ourselves\", \"We\", \"Our\" and \"Us\", refers to our Company. \"Party\", \"Parties\", or \"Us\", refers to both the Client and ourselves. All terms refer to the offer, acceptance and consideration of payment necessary to undertake the process of our assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services, in accordance with and subject to, prevailing law of Netherlands. Any use of the above terminology or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable and therefore as referring to same.</p><h3><strong>Cookies</strong></h3><p>We employ the use of cookies. By accessing Civil Engineering Lectures, you agreed to use cookies in agreement with the Ranjith Ekanayake\'s Privacy Policy.</p><p>Most interactive websites use cookies to let us retrieve the user’s details for each visit. Cookies are used by our website to enable the functionality of certain areas to make it easier for people visiting our website. Some of our affiliate/advertising partners may also use cookies.</p><h3><strong>License</strong></h3><p>Unless otherwise stated, Ranjith Ekanayake and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all material on Civil Engineering Lectures. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may access this from Civil Engineering Lectures for your own personal use subjected to restrictions set in these terms and conditions.</p><p>You must not:</p><ul><li>Republish material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Sell, rent or sub-license material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Reproduce, duplicate or copy material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Redistribute content from Civil Engineering Lectures</li></ul><p>This Agreement shall begin on the date hereof. Our Terms and Conditions were created with the help of the <a href=\"https://www.termsandconditionsgenerator.com/\">Terms And Conditions Generator</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/\">Privacy Policy Generator</a>.</p><p>Parts of this website offer an opportunity for users to post and exchange opinions and information in certain areas of the website. Ranjith Ekanayake does not filter, edit, publish or review Comments prior to their presence on the website. Comments do not reflect the views and opinions of Ranjith Ekanayake,its agents and/or affiliates. Comments reflect the views and opinions of the person who post their views and opinions. To the extent permitted by applicable laws, Ranjith Ekanayake shall not be liable for the Comments or for any liability, damages or expenses caused and/or suffered as a result of any use of and/or posting of and/or appearance of the Comments on this website.</p><p>Ranjith Ekanayake reserves the right to monitor all Comments and to remove any Comments which can be considered inappropriate, offensive or causes breach of these Terms and Conditions.</p><p>You warrant and represent that:</p><ul><li>You are entitled to post the Comments on our website and have all necessary licenses and consents to do so;</li><li>The Comments do not invade any intellectual property right, including without limitation copyright, patent or trademark of any third party;</li><li>The Comments do not contain any defamatory, libelous, offensive, indecent or otherwise unlawful material which is an invasion of privacy</li><li>The Comments will not be used to solicit or promote business or custom or present commercial activities or unlawful activity.</li></ul><p>You hereby grant Ranjith Ekanayake a non-exclusive license to use, reproduce, edit and authorize others to use, reproduce and edit any of your Comments in any and all forms, formats or media.</p><h3><strong>Hyperlinking to our Content</strong></h3><p>The following organizations may link to our Website without prior written approval:</p><ul><li>Government agencies;</li><li>Search engines;</li><li>News organizations;</li><li>Online directory distributors may link to our Website in the same manner as they hyperlink to the Websites of other listed businesses; and</li><li>System wide Accredited Businesses except soliciting non-profit organizations, charity shopping malls, and charity fundraising groups which may not hyperlink to our Web site.</li></ul><p>These organizations may link to our home page, to publications or to other Website information so long as the link: (a) is not in any way deceptive; (b) does not falsely imply sponsorship, endorsement or approval of the linking party and its products and/or services; and (c) fits within the context of the linking party’s site.</p><p>We may consider and approve other link requests from the following types of organizations:</p><ul><li>commonly-known consumer and/or business information sources;</li><li>dot.com community sites;</li><li>associations or other groups representing charities;</li><li>online directory distributors;</li><li>internet portals;</li><li>accounting, law and consulting firms; and</li><li>educational institutions and trade associations.</li></ul><p>We will approve link requests from these organizations if we decide that: (a) the link would not make us look unfavorably to ourselves or to our accredited businesses; (b) the organization does not have any negative records with us; (c) the benefit to us from the visibility of the hyperlink compensates the absence of Ranjith Ekanayake; and (d) the link is in the context of general resource information.</p><p>These organizations may link to our home page so long as the link: (a) is not in any way deceptive; (b) does not falsely imply sponsorship, endorsement or approval of the linking party and its products or services; and (c) fits within the context of the linking party’s site.</p><p>If you are one of the organizations listed in paragraph 2 above and are interested in linking to our website, you must inform us by sending an e-mail to Ranjith Ekanayake. Please include your name, your organization name, contact information as well as the URL of your site, a list of any URLs from which you intend to link to our Website, and a list of the URLs on our site to which you would like to link. Wait 2-3 weeks for a response.</p><p>Approved organizations may hyperlink to our Website as follows:</p><ul><li>By use of our corporate name; or</li><li>By use of the uniform resource locator being linked to; or</li><li>By use of any other description of our Website being linked to that makes sense within the context and format of content on the linking party’s site.</li></ul><p>No use of Ranjith Ekanayake\'s logo or other artwork will be allowed for linking absent a trademark license agreement.</p><h3><strong>iFrames</strong></h3><p>Without prior approval and written permission, you may not create frames around our Webpages that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our Website.</p><h3><strong>Content Liability</strong></h3><p>We shall not be hold responsible for any content that appears on your Website. You agree to protect and defend us against all claims that is rising on your Website. No link(s) should appear on any Website that may be interpreted as libelous, obscene or criminal, or which infringes, otherwise violates, or advocates the infringement or other violation of, any third party rights.</p><h3><strong>Your Privacy</strong></h3><p>Please read Privacy Policy</p><h3><strong>Reservation of Rights</strong></h3><p>We reserve the right to request that you remove all links or any particular link to our Website. You approve to immediately remove all links to our Website upon request. We also reserve the right to amen these terms and conditions and it’s linking policy at any time. By continuously linking to our Website, you agree to be bound to and follow these linking terms and conditions.</p><h3><strong>Removal of links from our website</strong></h3><p>If you find any link on our Website that is offensive for any reason, you are free to contact and inform us any moment. We will consider requests to remove links but we are not obligated to or so or to respond to you directly.</p><p>We do not ensure that the information on this website is correct, we do not warrant its completeness or accuracy; nor do we promise to ensure that the website remains available or that the material on the website is kept up to date.</p><h3><strong>Disclaimer</strong></h3><p>To the maximum extent permitted by applicable law, we exclude all representations, warranties and conditions relating to our website and the use of this website. Nothing in this disclaimer will:</p><ul><li>limit or exclude our or your liability for death or personal injury;</li><li>limit or exclude our or your liability for fraud or fraudulent misrepresentation;</li><li>limit any of our or your liabilities in any way that is not permitted under applicable law; or</li><li>exclude any of our or your liabilities that may not be excluded under applicable law.</li></ul><p>The limitations and prohibitions of liability set in this Section and elsewhere in this disclaimer: (a) are subject to the preceding paragraph; and (b) govern all liabilities arising under the disclaimer, including liabilities arising in contract, in tort and for breach of statutory duty.</p><p>As long as the website and the information and services on the website are provided free of charge, we will not be liable for any loss or damage of any nature.</p>', 'Terms & Conditions', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'terms-conditions', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?page_id=1288', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(1289, 1, '2021-01-14 21:17:37', '2021-01-14 15:47:37', '', 'Terms & Conditions', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1288-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:17:37', '2021-01-14 15:47:37', '', 1288, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1288-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1291, 1, '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 'Terms & Conditions', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1288-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 1288, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1288-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1292, 1, '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 'Terms & Conditions', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1288-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 1288, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1288-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1293, 1, '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '<h2><strong>Terms and Conditions</strong></h2><p>Welcome to Civil Engineering Lectures!</p><p>These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of Ranjith Ekanayake\'s Website, located at https://civilengineeringlectures.com/.</p><p>By accessing this website we assume you accept these terms and conditions. Do not continue to use Civil Engineering Lectures if you do not agree to take all of the terms and conditions stated on this page.</p><p>The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement and Disclaimer Notice and all Agreements: \"Client\", \"You\" and \"Your\" refers to you, the person log on this website and compliant to the Company’s terms and conditions. \"The Company\", \"Ourselves\", \"We\", \"Our\" and \"Us\", refers to our Company. \"Party\", \"Parties\", or \"Us\", refers to both the Client and ourselves. All terms refer to the offer, acceptance and consideration of payment necessary to undertake the process of our assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services, in accordance with and subject to, prevailing law of Netherlands. Any use of the above terminology or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable and therefore as referring to same.</p><h3><strong>Cookies</strong></h3><p>We employ the use of cookies. By accessing Civil Engineering Lectures, you agreed to use cookies in agreement with the Ranjith Ekanayake\'s Privacy Policy.</p><p>Most interactive websites use cookies to let us retrieve the user’s details for each visit. Cookies are used by our website to enable the functionality of certain areas to make it easier for people visiting our website. Some of our affiliate/advertising partners may also use cookies.</p><h3><strong>License</strong></h3><p>Unless otherwise stated, Ranjith Ekanayake and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all material on Civil Engineering Lectures. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may access this from Civil Engineering Lectures for your own personal use subjected to restrictions set in these terms and conditions.</p><p>You must not:</p><ul><li>Republish material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Sell, rent or sub-license material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Reproduce, duplicate or copy material from Civil Engineering Lectures</li><li>Redistribute content from Civil Engineering Lectures</li></ul><p>This Agreement shall begin on the date hereof. Our Terms and Conditions were created with the help of the <a href=\"https://www.termsandconditionsgenerator.com/\">Terms And Conditions Generator</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.generateprivacypolicy.com/\">Privacy Policy Generator</a>.</p><p>Parts of this website offer an opportunity for users to post and exchange opinions and information in certain areas of the website. Ranjith Ekanayake does not filter, edit, publish or review Comments prior to their presence on the website. Comments do not reflect the views and opinions of Ranjith Ekanayake,its agents and/or affiliates. Comments reflect the views and opinions of the person who post their views and opinions. To the extent permitted by applicable laws, Ranjith Ekanayake shall not be liable for the Comments or for any liability, damages or expenses caused and/or suffered as a result of any use of and/or posting of and/or appearance of the Comments on this website.</p><p>Ranjith Ekanayake reserves the right to monitor all Comments and to remove any Comments which can be considered inappropriate, offensive or causes breach of these Terms and Conditions.</p><p>You warrant and represent that:</p><ul><li>You are entitled to post the Comments on our website and have all necessary licenses and consents to do so;</li><li>The Comments do not invade any intellectual property right, including without limitation copyright, patent or trademark of any third party;</li><li>The Comments do not contain any defamatory, libelous, offensive, indecent or otherwise unlawful material which is an invasion of privacy</li><li>The Comments will not be used to solicit or promote business or custom or present commercial activities or unlawful activity.</li></ul><p>You hereby grant Ranjith Ekanayake a non-exclusive license to use, reproduce, edit and authorize others to use, reproduce and edit any of your Comments in any and all forms, formats or media.</p><h3><strong>Hyperlinking to our Content</strong></h3><p>The following organizations may link to our Website without prior written approval:</p><ul><li>Government agencies;</li><li>Search engines;</li><li>News organizations;</li><li>Online directory distributors may link to our Website in the same manner as they hyperlink to the Websites of other listed businesses; and</li><li>System wide Accredited Businesses except soliciting non-profit organizations, charity shopping malls, and charity fundraising groups which may not hyperlink to our Web site.</li></ul><p>These organizations may link to our home page, to publications or to other Website information so long as the link: (a) is not in any way deceptive; (b) does not falsely imply sponsorship, endorsement or approval of the linking party and its products and/or services; and (c) fits within the context of the linking party’s site.</p><p>We may consider and approve other link requests from the following types of organizations:</p><ul><li>commonly-known consumer and/or business information sources;</li><li>dot.com community sites;</li><li>associations or other groups representing charities;</li><li>online directory distributors;</li><li>internet portals;</li><li>accounting, law and consulting firms; and</li><li>educational institutions and trade associations.</li></ul><p>We will approve link requests from these organizations if we decide that: (a) the link would not make us look unfavorably to ourselves or to our accredited businesses; (b) the organization does not have any negative records with us; (c) the benefit to us from the visibility of the hyperlink compensates the absence of Ranjith Ekanayake; and (d) the link is in the context of general resource information.</p><p>These organizations may link to our home page so long as the link: (a) is not in any way deceptive; (b) does not falsely imply sponsorship, endorsement or approval of the linking party and its products or services; and (c) fits within the context of the linking party’s site.</p><p>If you are one of the organizations listed in paragraph 2 above and are interested in linking to our website, you must inform us by sending an e-mail to Ranjith Ekanayake. Please include your name, your organization name, contact information as well as the URL of your site, a list of any URLs from which you intend to link to our Website, and a list of the URLs on our site to which you would like to link. Wait 2-3 weeks for a response.</p><p>Approved organizations may hyperlink to our Website as follows:</p><ul><li>By use of our corporate name; or</li><li>By use of the uniform resource locator being linked to; or</li><li>By use of any other description of our Website being linked to that makes sense within the context and format of content on the linking party’s site.</li></ul><p>No use of Ranjith Ekanayake\'s logo or other artwork will be allowed for linking absent a trademark license agreement.</p><h3><strong>iFrames</strong></h3><p>Without prior approval and written permission, you may not create frames around our Webpages that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our Website.</p><h3><strong>Content Liability</strong></h3><p>We shall not be hold responsible for any content that appears on your Website. You agree to protect and defend us against all claims that is rising on your Website. No link(s) should appear on any Website that may be interpreted as libelous, obscene or criminal, or which infringes, otherwise violates, or advocates the infringement or other violation of, any third party rights.</p><h3><strong>Your Privacy</strong></h3><p>Please read Privacy Policy</p><h3><strong>Reservation of Rights</strong></h3><p>We reserve the right to request that you remove all links or any particular link to our Website. You approve to immediately remove all links to our Website upon request. We also reserve the right to amen these terms and conditions and it’s linking policy at any time. By continuously linking to our Website, you agree to be bound to and follow these linking terms and conditions.</p><h3><strong>Removal of links from our website</strong></h3><p>If you find any link on our Website that is offensive for any reason, you are free to contact and inform us any moment. We will consider requests to remove links but we are not obligated to or so or to respond to you directly.</p><p>We do not ensure that the information on this website is correct, we do not warrant its completeness or accuracy; nor do we promise to ensure that the website remains available or that the material on the website is kept up to date.</p><h3><strong>Disclaimer</strong></h3><p>To the maximum extent permitted by applicable law, we exclude all representations, warranties and conditions relating to our website and the use of this website. Nothing in this disclaimer will:</p><ul><li>limit or exclude our or your liability for death or personal injury;</li><li>limit or exclude our or your liability for fraud or fraudulent misrepresentation;</li><li>limit any of our or your liabilities in any way that is not permitted under applicable law; or</li><li>exclude any of our or your liabilities that may not be excluded under applicable law.</li></ul><p>The limitations and prohibitions of liability set in this Section and elsewhere in this disclaimer: (a) are subject to the preceding paragraph; and (b) govern all liabilities arising under the disclaimer, including liabilities arising in contract, in tort and for breach of statutory duty.</p><p>As long as the website and the information and services on the website are provided free of charge, we will not be liable for any loss or damage of any nature.</p>', 'Terms & Conditions', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1288-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:18:27', '2021-01-14 15:48:27', '', 1288, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1288-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1298, 1, '2021-01-14 21:50:22', '2021-01-14 16:20:22', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute is a difference of opinion or disagreement between parties to the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute exists if there is a claim or position on an issue by one party and its denial by the other party.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Methods of Dispute Resolutions</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Litigation</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; – in courts</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Alternate Dispute resolutions (ADR)</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Conciliation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Mediation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Adjudication</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Arbitration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Litigation vs. ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Litigation</strong></td><td><strong>ADR</strong></td></tr><tr><td>High cost and time</td><td>Low cost and lesser time</td></tr><tr><td>Open to public</td><td>Private</td></tr><tr><td>Place of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Place decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Time of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Time decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Judges are appointed by the state</td><td>Selected by the parties</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Factors affecting disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>The terms of the contract</li><li>The technological issues of site and works</li><li>The character of project personnel</li><li>Environmental factors</li><li>The legal basis of the argument, etc.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disagreement often arises over technical questions. For example, the use of different and unfamiliar techniques or methods may be the cause of disagreements and arguments. The site condition is also often a source of argument. Although at the time of the site visit, everything above ground level is visible, it can hold many surprises once excavation starts.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Whose responsibility to resolve disputes?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To find out the answer to this question, one has to look at the clauses in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Should any dispute, which arises out of a construction contract, must be resolved by courts or at arbitration?</li><li>Whether an arbitration agreement is included in the contract or not.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must always remember that contracting parties can alter the terms of their contract at any time by mutual consent.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A variety of techniques is available for the parties to form a settlement without resorting to arbitration or litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These procedures are informal. &nbsp;The terminologies used to describe them are somewhat loose and unclear. However, they are cheap and nonbinding.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Mostly used non-binding ADR methods are as follows;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Conciliation&nbsp;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The conciliator must be independent of the parties to contract. The purpose of this process is to agree with persuasion. Therefore, impartiality is an essential factor. Conciliators do not take sides. Also, they do not take decisions or make judgments. They talk to each party in private and will not reveal anything to the other party. The conciliator may bring the parties together for an open discussion, which he leads. The conciliator will be seeking to establish common ground, ascertaining the facts, which are in dispute. However, ultimately parties themselves have to reach an agreement.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mediation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is an extended version of conciliation. The initial stages will follow a similar process. The mediator consults first with one party and then with the other party. The end is different from conciliation. If no negotiated settlement results from the process, the mediator will make recommendations to settle the dispute, based on his findings. The mediation process retains the flexibility of conciliation. However, it encourages a slightly more interventionist role for the mediator. Therefore, it tends to be less open-ended. The mediation process does not expect any party to pull out. This process expects that both parties will accept the decision of the mediator.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Adjudication</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most conditions of contract require the engineer to act impartially. Concern has often been expressed that this may conflict with his other role as the agent of the employer. This has led to the creation of a technique for the resolution of disputes known as adjudication.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract provides that disputes over certain matters be referred to an independent adjudicator. This person is expected to make a quick decision on the matter, which the parties agree to treat as temporarily binding but their eventual rights as determined by arbitration or litigation. The prime objective of this procedure is to enable continuing rather than holding it up until rights and obligations can be finally determined. The basis of this system is for the duration of the contract there is always a person available to whom a dispute can be referred.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This decision is not legally enforceable in the sense that the decision of a judge or arbitrator is enforceable. By signing a contract, which includes a provision of adjudication, the parties are indicating that they intend to accept the adjudicator’s decision.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method is used in very large contracts. The persons in the DAB are called “Members”. There are one or three suitably qualified persons in a DAB. Each of the members shall be fluent in the language for communication defined in the contract. Also, they shall be professional and experienced in the type of construction involved in the works and with the interpretation of contractual documents. If the number of adjudicators in the DAB is not stated, the DAB shall comprise three persons. And, one of the adjudicators shall serve as chairman.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the mutual agreement of both parties, the appointment of any member may be terminated. But, the Employer or the contractor alone cannot remove members. If not agreed mutually by both parties, the DAB shall expire when the discharge shall have become effective.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are so many factors that may initiate a dispute between parties. A dispute may arise between the parties in connection with or arising out of, the contract. It may be due to the execution of the works, or due to a payment certificate, or determination, instruction, opinion, or valuation of the Engineer. If so, any party to the agreement may refer the dispute in writing to the DAB for its decision, sending copies to the other party and the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Within 84 days after receiving such reference, or within such other period as may be proposed by the DAB and approved by both parties, the DAB shall be given its decision, which shall be reasoned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision shall be binding on both parties. The parties shall give effect to the decision unless and until it is revised in an amicable settlement or an arbitral award.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If any party is dissatisfied with the DAB’s decision, then the party may, within 28 days after receiving the decision, give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction. And, also they can express their intention to commence arbitration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the DAB fails to give its decision within 84 days, then parties to the agreement may give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction and intention to commence arbitration. However, it shall be within 28 days after the expiration of 84 days period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the DAB’s decision, if no notice of dissatisfaction has been given by either party within 28 days after the DAB’s decision, then the decision shall become final and binding upon both parties.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>ARBITRATION</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally to follow arbitration the provision must be made specifically in the contract. ICTAD conditions of contract outline the procedure for the settlement of disputes;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“if the contractor believes that a decision taken by the engineer was either outside the authority given to the engineer or the decision was wrongly taken, the decision shall be referred to the adjudicator. The adjudicator shall give a decision within 28 days. Either party may refer a decision of the adjudicator to an arbitrator within 28 days of the adjudicator’s decision. If neither party refers the dispute to arbitration within the 28 days, the adjudicator’s decision will be final and binding.”</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration is often more suitable than the court proceedings, because of the highly involved technical issues which have to be decided on, since it is usual to have as the arbitrator, a person with experience and knowledge of construction works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Special features of Arbitration:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Resolve dispute finally - cannot refer back to courts</li><li>Is relatively quick</li><li>Generally less expensive than full litigation- but not necessarily</li><li>Is private and not open to public&nbsp;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Powers of Arbitrators</strong>: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator has powers to:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Open-up arbitration;</li><li>Control proceedings-documentary evidence, oral question, presentations by parties;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li><li>Order protective measures - parties are required to disclose any document which arbitrator or other party requires;</li><li>Conduct hearing;</li><li>Summon witnesses;</li><li>Review engineer’s &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\n<ol>\n<li>Decision;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Opinion;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Direction;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Certificate;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Valuation&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n</ol>\n</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Selection of Arbitrators &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration Act of Sri Lanka allows the parties to determine the number of arbitrators.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where such determination is not made, the number of arbitrators shall be three.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Procedure for hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Summon parties to preliminary meetings;</li><li>Will listen to basic information about the dispute(s);</li><li>Will disclose the way of hearing;</li><li>Order one party to answer other parties questions;</li><li>Order parties to lodge documents with him.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>During the hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>will fix the date and venue of hearing;</li><li>Will decide the order of hearing;</li><li>Will order submission in writing when required;</li><li>May order to submit a list of witnesses;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unlike the judges, the arbitrator can ask questions himself.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>After hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator can take a reasonable time to consider his award. He can recall evidence and can refer to legal points. The arbitrator will deliver the written award to both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator’s fee is met by both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Objection for Arbitration award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>No party can object to the award made by the arbitrator(s). The arbitrator’s decision is final.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The only area that the award can be taken to court action is on the way of conducting the hearing of arbitration or the arbitrator is at a fault. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Arbitration Agreement&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement may be in the form of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Arbitration clause in the contract; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- In the form of a separate agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement shall be in writing. When a party to an arbitration agreement, institute legal proceedings in a court against another in respect of a matter agreed to be submitted for arbitration, the court shall have no jurisdiction to hear and determine such matter if the second party objects to the court.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Composition of Arbitral Tribunal</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall determine the number of arbitrators of an arbitral tribunal, subject to the provision in the arbitration agreement. When no such determination is made in the agreement, the number shall be three. Where the parties appoint an even number of arbitrators, arbitrators so appointed shall jointly appoint an additional arbitrator who shall be the chairman.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall be free to agree on a procedure for appointing the arbitrators, subject to the above, and include in the agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conduct of Arbitration Procedure</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall deal with the dispute submitted, impartially and expeditiously. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall afford all the parties, an opportunity, of presenting their cases in writing or orally and to examine all the documents and materials furnished by other parties or any other person.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties can select and agree mutually on the place of arbitration. Failing such agreement, the place shall be determined by the tribunal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unless a contrary intention is expressed in the agreement, any decision made in the course of proceedings, by a majority of the tribunal and failing a majority, the decision of the arbitrator appointed by the other arbitrators, or when there is a Chairman, the decision of such Chairman, shall be binding,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall be made in writing and shall be signed by the arbitrators constituting the tribunal. For a tribunal consisting of more than one arbitrator, the signature of the majority shall suffice, stating the reason for any omitted signature.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A copy of the award is delivered to each party.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall give the reason on which it is based.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'DISPUTES IN CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS', 'Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1141-autosave-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:50:22', '2021-01-14 16:20:22', '', 1141, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1141-autosave-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1299, 1, '2021-01-14 21:50:32', '2021-01-14 16:20:32', 'Starter Templates Image - craftsmen, site, workers-3094035.jpg', 'craftsmen, site, workers-3094035', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'craftsmen-site-workers-3094035', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:50:32', '2021-01-14 16:20:32', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/craftsmen-site-workers-3094035/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1300, 1, '2021-01-14 21:50:41', '2021-01-14 16:20:41', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute is a difference of opinion or disagreement between parties to the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A dispute exists if there is a claim or position on an issue by one party and its denial by the other party.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Methods of Dispute Resolutions</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Litigation</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; – in courts</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Alternate Dispute resolutions (ADR)</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Conciliation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Mediation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Adjudication</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Arbitration</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Litigation vs. ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Litigation</strong></td><td><strong>ADR</strong></td></tr><tr><td>High cost and time</td><td>Low cost and lesser time</td></tr><tr><td>Open to public</td><td>Private</td></tr><tr><td>Place of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Place decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Time of inquiry decided by the state</td><td>Time decided by the parties</td></tr><tr><td>Judges are appointed by the state</td><td>Selected by the parties</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Factors affecting disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>The terms of the contract</li><li>The technological issues of site and works</li><li>The character of project personnel</li><li>Environmental factors</li><li>The legal basis of the argument, etc.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disagreement often arises over technical questions. For example, the use of different and unfamiliar techniques or methods may be the cause of disagreements and arguments. The site condition is also often a source of argument. Although at the time of the site visit, everything above ground level is visible, it can hold many surprises once excavation starts.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Whose responsibility to resolve disputes?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To find out the answer to this question, one has to look at the clauses in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Should any dispute, which arises out of a construction contract, must be resolved by courts or at arbitration?</li><li>Whether an arbitration agreement is included in the contract or not.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It must always remember that contracting parties can alter the terms of their contract at any time by mutual consent.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A variety of techniques is available for the parties to form a settlement without resorting to arbitration or litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These procedures are informal. &nbsp;The terminologies used to describe them are somewhat loose and unclear. However, they are cheap and nonbinding.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Mostly used non-binding ADR methods are as follows;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Conciliation&nbsp;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The conciliator must be independent of the parties to contract. The purpose of this process is to agree with persuasion. Therefore, impartiality is an essential factor. Conciliators do not take sides. Also, they do not take decisions or make judgments. They talk to each party in private and will not reveal anything to the other party. The conciliator may bring the parties together for an open discussion, which he leads. The conciliator will be seeking to establish common ground, ascertaining the facts, which are in dispute. However, ultimately parties themselves have to reach an agreement.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mediation</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is an extended version of conciliation. The initial stages will follow a similar process. The mediator consults first with one party and then with the other party. The end is different from conciliation. If no negotiated settlement results from the process, the mediator will make recommendations to settle the dispute, based on his findings. The mediation process retains the flexibility of conciliation. However, it encourages a slightly more interventionist role for the mediator. Therefore, it tends to be less open-ended. The mediation process does not expect any party to pull out. This process expects that both parties will accept the decision of the mediator.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Adjudication</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most conditions of contract require the engineer to act impartially. Concern has often been expressed that this may conflict with his other role as the agent of the employer. This has led to the creation of a technique for the resolution of disputes known as adjudication.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contract provides that disputes over certain matters be referred to an independent adjudicator. This person is expected to make a quick decision on the matter, which the parties agree to treat as temporarily binding but their eventual rights as determined by arbitration or litigation. The prime objective of this procedure is to enable continuing rather than holding it up until rights and obligations can be finally determined. The basis of this system is for the duration of the contract there is always a person available to whom a dispute can be referred.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This decision is not legally enforceable in the sense that the decision of a judge or arbitrator is enforceable. By signing a contract, which includes a provision of adjudication, the parties are indicating that they intend to accept the adjudicator’s decision.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method is used in very large contracts. The persons in the DAB are called “Members”. There are one or three suitably qualified persons in a DAB. Each of the members shall be fluent in the language for communication defined in the contract. Also, they shall be professional and experienced in the type of construction involved in the works and with the interpretation of contractual documents. If the number of adjudicators in the DAB is not stated, the DAB shall comprise three persons. And, one of the adjudicators shall serve as chairman.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the mutual agreement of both parties, the appointment of any member may be terminated. But, the Employer or the contractor alone cannot remove members. If not agreed mutually by both parties, the DAB shall expire when the discharge shall have become effective.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are so many factors that may initiate a dispute between parties. A dispute may arise between the parties in connection with or arising out of, the contract. It may be due to the execution of the works, or due to a payment certificate, or determination, instruction, opinion, or valuation of the Engineer. If so, any party to the agreement may refer the dispute in writing to the DAB for its decision, sending copies to the other party and the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Within 84 days after receiving such reference, or within such other period as may be proposed by the DAB and approved by both parties, the DAB shall be given its decision, which shall be reasoned.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision shall be binding on both parties. The parties shall give effect to the decision unless and until it is revised in an amicable settlement or an arbitral award.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If any party is dissatisfied with the DAB’s decision, then the party may, within 28 days after receiving the decision, give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction. And, also they can express their intention to commence arbitration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the DAB fails to give its decision within 84 days, then parties to the agreement may give notice to the other party of its dissatisfaction and intention to commence arbitration. However, it shall be within 28 days after the expiration of 84 days period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the DAB’s decision, if no notice of dissatisfaction has been given by either party within 28 days after the DAB’s decision, then the decision shall become final and binding upon both parties.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>ARBITRATION</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally to follow arbitration the provision must be made specifically in the contract. ICTAD conditions of contract outline the procedure for the settlement of disputes;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“if the contractor believes that a decision taken by the engineer was either outside the authority given to the engineer or the decision was wrongly taken, the decision shall be referred to the adjudicator. The adjudicator shall give a decision within 28 days. Either party may refer a decision of the adjudicator to an arbitrator within 28 days of the adjudicator’s decision. If neither party refers the dispute to arbitration within the 28 days, the adjudicator’s decision will be final and binding.”</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration is often more suitable than the court proceedings, because of the highly involved technical issues which have to be decided on, since it is usual to have as the arbitrator, a person with experience and knowledge of construction works.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Special features of Arbitration:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Resolve dispute finally - cannot refer back to courts</li><li>Is relatively quick</li><li>Generally less expensive than full litigation- but not necessarily</li><li>Is private and not open to public&nbsp;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Powers of Arbitrators</strong>: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator has powers to:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Open-up arbitration;</li><li>Control proceedings-documentary evidence, oral question, presentations by parties;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li><li>Order protective measures - parties are required to disclose any document which arbitrator or other party requires;</li><li>Conduct hearing;</li><li>Summon witnesses;</li><li>Review engineer’s &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\n<ol>\n<li>Decision;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Opinion;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Direction;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Certificate;</li>\n</ol>\n<ol>\n<li>Valuation&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n</ol>\n</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Selection of Arbitrators &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Arbitration Act of Sri Lanka allows the parties to determine the number of arbitrators.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where such determination is not made, the number of arbitrators shall be three.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Procedure for hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>Summon parties to preliminary meetings;</li><li>Will listen to basic information about the dispute(s);</li><li>Will disclose the way of hearing;</li><li>Order one party to answer other parties questions;</li><li>Order parties to lodge documents with him.</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>During the hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><li>will fix the date and venue of hearing;</li><li>Will decide the order of hearing;</li><li>Will order submission in writing when required;</li><li>May order to submit a list of witnesses;</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unlike the judges, the arbitrator can ask questions himself.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>After hearing</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator can take a reasonable time to consider his award. He can recall evidence and can refer to legal points. The arbitrator will deliver the written award to both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Cost</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The arbitrator’s fee is met by both parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Objection for Arbitration award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>No party can object to the award made by the arbitrator(s). The arbitrator’s decision is final.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The only area that the award can be taken to court action is on the way of conducting the hearing of arbitration or the arbitrator is at a fault. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Arbitration Agreement&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement may be in the form of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Arbitration clause in the contract; or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- In the form of a separate agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An arbitration agreement shall be in writing. When a party to an arbitration agreement, institute legal proceedings in a court against another in respect of a matter agreed to be submitted for arbitration, the court shall have no jurisdiction to hear and determine such matter if the second party objects to the court.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Composition of Arbitral Tribunal</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall determine the number of arbitrators of an arbitral tribunal, subject to the provision in the arbitration agreement. When no such determination is made in the agreement, the number shall be three. Where the parties appoint an even number of arbitrators, arbitrators so appointed shall jointly appoint an additional arbitrator who shall be the chairman.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties shall be free to agree on a procedure for appointing the arbitrators, subject to the above, and include in the agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Conduct of Arbitration Procedure</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall deal with the dispute submitted, impartially and expeditiously. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The tribunal shall afford all the parties, an opportunity, of presenting their cases in writing or orally and to examine all the documents and materials furnished by other parties or any other person.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The parties can select and agree mutually on the place of arbitration. Failing such agreement, the place shall be determined by the tribunal.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unless a contrary intention is expressed in the agreement, any decision made in the course of proceedings, by a majority of the tribunal and failing a majority, the decision of the arbitrator appointed by the other arbitrators, or when there is a Chairman, the decision of such Chairman, shall be binding,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Award</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall be made in writing and shall be signed by the arbitrators constituting the tribunal. For a tribunal consisting of more than one arbitrator, the signature of the majority shall suffice, stating the reason for any omitted signature.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A copy of the award is delivered to each party.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The award shall give the reason on which it is based.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'DISPUTES IN CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS', 'Contractual disputes arise due to a series of factors, combined in various ways to produce arguments and disagreements.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1141-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:50:41', '2021-01-14 16:20:41', '', 1141, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1141-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1301, 1, '2021-01-14 21:52:14', '2021-01-14 16:22:14', 'Starter Templates Image - library, books, education-869061.jpg', 'library, books, education-869061', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'library-books-education-869061', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:52:14', '2021-01-14 16:22:14', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/library-books-education-869061/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1302, 1, '2021-01-14 21:52:24', '2021-01-14 16:22:24', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is an agreement between parties. It is binding in law. It means the rights and obligations of the parties under a contract may be enforced by the courts. Sometimes, the courts may force the performance of contractual obligations by the party in default. Usually, the court may award damages for breach of contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following are the four basic elements that must be present for a valid contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Offer,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Acceptance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Consideration, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The intention to create legal relations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, several rounds of negotiations take place between the parties, before an agreement becomes binding and a contract is formed. It is very important to know the exact moment when a contract is formed. &nbsp;At this precise point, the parties accept contractual obligations and the consequent risk of liability if any party breaches the terms of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Offer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An offer is a statement of willingness by one party to enter into a contract with the other party. It is comprised of specific and clear terms. The offer must be a complete one. Also, it must be specific and capable of being accepted. It must include the fundamental terms of the agreement having the intention to create the contract. There should be no further negotiations to take place. An offer can be “express” - for example, if A tells B she will sell her television set for Rs: 50,000.00. An offer can also be “implied” from conduct - for example when a customer brings goods to the cashier of a supermarket.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Invitations to Treat</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An invitation to treat is different from an offer. &nbsp;It only invites the other party to make an offer and is not considered binding. An example of an invitation to treat is an advertisement of goods for sale, with a price attached, in a shop window. Under the law of contract, as an invitation to treat, the customer cannot insist on buying such an item on display. And, the shop would not be obliged to sell the item at the price indicated. Circulars, catalogs, and price-lists would also normally be viewed as invitations to treat.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Termination of Offers</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An offer may be revoked or terminated;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>after elapsing a reasonable period. It is better to include in the offer what is meant by a reasonable period. It avoids uncertainty in the time limit;</li><li>if the offer is withdrawn or revoked before acceptance. However, this withdrawal or revocation must be communicated to the person or persons to whom the offer was originally made;</li><li>when the person to whom the offer was made rejects the offer. The offer then lapses. &nbsp;The person to whom the offer was made originally cannot afterward change their mind;</li><li>when the person making the offer dies;</li><li>if any condition of sale is not fulfilled.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Acceptance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After acceptance of the offer, a fully binding contract is formed. The acceptance must be final and unqualified of all the terms of the offer. The offer must accept without announcing new terms. If all the terms of the offer are not accepted or new terms are announced then this is considered as a counter-offer. A counter-offer rejects the original offer. If the terms of the counter-offer are accepted, however, then these become the terms of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acceptance does not take place until communicated to the person making the offer. The contract is formed at the moment when acceptance is communicated back to the party who made the offer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Main rules governing the communication of acceptance</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two main rules are governing the communication of acceptance:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Reception Rule - the contract is formed when acceptance is received by the person making the offer. This applies to instant forms of communication such as phone calls.</li><li>Postal Rule - this applies when it is reasonable to use a form of delayed communication such as the post. Under this rule, acceptance is considered as communicated as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted. It remains effective even if the letter is lost, delayed, or destroyed. The letter must however be properly posted and addressed.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is sensible to make provision in the terms of the offer as to the method and timing of the acceptance of the offer to avoid the use of the postal rule. At the moment no statutory or common law rules have been established to govern acceptance of an offer by e-mail. If no method of communication is specified then acceptance may be communicated by any method. However, if the method of communication of acceptance has been specified, then the offer can only be accepted in that manner. If acceptance is attempted to be communicated differently, then this would amount to a counter-offer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Consideration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For enforcing an obligation under a contract, there must be a consideration. Obligations can only be enforced if the party who wants to enforce that obligation has given or promised something in return. All parties to a contract must provide consideration. If no consideration has been provided by a party, then the contract will only be enforceable if it is made as a deed. The courts will not normally be concerned with the fairness of the contract or the adequacy of the consideration if the consideration mentioned has some value.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The person to whom the promise is made must have provided consideration. &nbsp;He must do, give or promise something in return for it. For example - X cleans Y\'s car and Y gives X Rs: 100 in return.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consideration must not be past. Something, has been already done, given, or promised before the formation of the contract is not to be considered as consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Intention to Create Legal Relations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes parties may make an agreement without any intention of legal binding. Those agreements will not be regarded by the courts as a contract. However, in commercial agreements, there is a presumption that the parties expect the agreement to be legally binding. To negate this presumption, a party will have to produce clear evidence to that effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of no intention to create legal relations are advertisements in which vague and extravagant claims are often made in order to attract customers. Another example is domestic agreements between husbands and wives or parents and children and other social agreements between friends such as an invitation for dinner. However, there may be certain situations in which advertisements, domestic agreements, and social agreements could be regarded as legally binding. An example of this would be where members of the same family have a business relationship with another.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Certainty of Terms</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The terms of a legally binding contract must be certain. It is an essential factor. Terms cannot be unclear, ambiguous, or incomplete. Although there is a clear intention to create legal relations, if the terms of the agreement are unclear then it cannot be considered as a legally binding contract. However, the courts sometimes try to interpret uncertain terms in a way that makes them more certain. For example, it is done by reference to trade custom or previous dealings between the parties. However, outcomes of these situations depend on the specific facts of the cases.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Written or Oral</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract does not always need to be in writing. There are circumstances in which an oral contract will be legally enforceable. It is however sensible to record all the terms of the contract in writing. So both parties know the terms agreed whilst at the same time clarifying points of potential ambiguity between the parties. Another important thing is the written terms can be used in evidence in the event of a dispute. Where a contract is written each statement in that written document is a “term”. The written document is regarded as the whole contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the contract is an oral, or partly oral and partly written, then all the statements that have been made have to be looked at by the court to decide whether they are actual terms of the contract or mere representations. However, in certain circumstances law requires written contracts. These include guarantees, share transfers, assignments of certain intellectual property rights (e.g. a trademark), and most contracts relating to land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Discharge of Contracts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mainly there are four methods, by which a contract can be discharged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- performance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- breach,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- agreement, or</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- frustration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Performance</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is discharged when all the parties have performed all their obligations under the contract. If a party decides not to perform its contractual obligations then it is not discharged from such obligations but remains bound to perform them. Refusal to perform may amount to a breach.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Breach</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When a party fails to perform some or all of its obligations under the contract, the contract is considered as breached. Another situation for breached contracts is when a party performs an obligation defectively or indicates in advance that they will not be performing as previously agreed. Any breach permits the innocent party to bring a claim for damages for any loss suffered.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Agreement</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is where the parties agree to terminate the contract in order to release one or both parties from the agreement. It can also take the form of a change in the contract terms. An agreement to change the contract is another binding agreement. But it has to be made by a deed or the promise must be backed up by consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Frustration</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, subsequent events occur which is not due to the fault of either party, and these events make the contract impossible or difficult to perform. Then the contract is considered as frustrated. In a frustrated situation, the parties are no longer bound to perform their obligations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many situations can create a contract difficult or even impossible to perform. However, only in certain circumstances, the contract is regarded as frustrated. One situation is the frustrating event must occur after the contract has been formed. And neither party must be at fault. Another situation is the frustrating event must strike at the root of the contract. And it must render further performance impossible, illegal, or totally different from that planned by the parties at the time the contract was made.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of frustrating events are as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- the destruction or unavailability of the subject matter of the contract,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- illegality of performance - for example following a change in the law,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- personal incapacity in a personal services contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is not usually discharged by frustration if the contract has simply become more expensive to perform or an alternative method of performance is possible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A frustrated situation automatically discharges the parties from their future obligations. No party can claim damages for non-performance. It is because neither party is to blame for the fault.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Discharge of a Contract by Challenging its Validity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The validity of a contract can be challenged on a number of grounds such as public policy, mistake, illegality, or duress.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Public Policy</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contracts to commit crimes are void for reasons of public policy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Illegality</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a basic rule, an illegal contract will be unenforceable by either party.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mistake</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In certain circumstances, a contract may be set aside due to a mistake made by the parties to that contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Duress</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is voidable by the injured party when it is induced by duress - which is actual or threatened violence or unlawful restraint. However, the injured party can choose to affirm or discharge the contract. Economic duress also makes a contract voidable if the injured party has been forced into the agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->', 'Law of Contracts - Basic Legal Issues', 'A contract is an agreement between parties. It is binding in law. It means the rights and obligations of the parties under a contract may be enforced by the courts.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1097-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:52:24', '2021-01-14 16:22:24', '', 1097, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1097-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1389, 1, '2021-01-15 19:55:59', '2021-01-15 14:25:59', '', 'The Radius of Gyration (r)', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '25-1', '', '', '2021-01-15 19:56:30', '2021-01-15 14:26:30', '', 1086, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-1.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1390, 1, '2021-01-15 20:03:42', '2021-01-15 14:33:42', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is a property of a section. It is also a function of the second moment of area. The radius of gyration gives the <strong>stiffness</strong> of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1389,\"width\":241,\"height\":387,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-1.jpg\" alt=\"The Radius of Gyration (r) \" class=\"wp-image-1389\" width=\"241\" height=\"387\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown in the diagram, the member bends in the thinnest plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using the radius of gyration, we can compare the behavior of various structural shapes under compression along an axis. It can be used to predict buckling in a compression member such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Formula for the Radius of Gyration - r</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1391,\"width\":164,\"height\":109,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1391\" width=\"164\" height=\"109\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where&nbsp; <em>I</em> = the second moment of area</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross-sectional area of the member</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit of measurement is mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The <strong>smallest</strong> value of the radius of gyration is considered for the calculations of the structural stiffness of the member. That is the plane in which the member is most likely to fail or buckle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Square or circular shapes have the same radius of gyration about any plane. There is no smallest value. Therefore, these sections are ideal selections for columns.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>Calculating the radius of gyration</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plan view of a column is shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1392,\"width\":317,\"height\":452,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-3.jpg\" alt=\"Calculating the radius of gyration \" class=\"wp-image-1392\" width=\"317\" height=\"452\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>First, we have to calculate the I value about <em>x-x</em> and <em>y-y</em> axes.</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>xx</sub></em> = 33.3 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>yy</sub></em><sub> </sub>= 2.08 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross sectional area = 50 mm x 200 mm = 10,000 mm<sup>2</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Substituting the value of <em>I<sub>xx</sub></em> and cross-sectional area <em>A</em> in the above formula we can get r<sub>xx</sub>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1393,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-5.png\" alt=\"value of the r about the x-x axis\" class=\"wp-image-1393\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>x-x</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1394,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/25-6.png\" alt=\"value of the r about the y-y axis\" class=\"wp-image-1394\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>y-y</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Since r<sub>yy</sub> is smaller, probable failure occurs about the <em>y-y</em> plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Radius of Gyration (r)', 'The radius of gyration gives the stiffness of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1086-autosave-v1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:03:42', '2021-01-15 14:33:42', '', 1086, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1086-autosave-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1304, 1, '2021-01-14 21:55:13', '2021-01-14 16:25:13', 'Starter Templates Image - geometry, mathematics, volume-1044090.jpg', 'geometry, mathematics, volume-1044090', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'geometry-mathematics-volume-1044090', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:55:13', '2021-01-14 16:25:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/geometry-mathematics-volume-1044090/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1305, 1, '2021-01-14 21:55:20', '2021-01-14 16:25:20', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is a property of a section. It is also a function of the second moment of area. The radius of gyration gives the <strong>stiffness</strong> of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1087,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1087\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As shown in the diagram, the member bends in the thinnest plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using the radius of gyration, we can compare the behavior of various structural shapes under compression along an axis. It can be used to predict buckling in a compression member such as a column.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Formula for the Radius of Gyration - r</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1088,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1088\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where&nbsp; <em>I</em> = the second moment of area</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross-sectional area of the member</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit of measurement is mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The <strong>smallest</strong> value of the radius of gyration is considered for the calculations of the structural stiffness of the member. That is the plane in which the member is most likely to fail or buckle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Square or circular shapes have the same radius of gyration about any plane. There is no smallest value. Therefore, these sections are ideal selections for columns.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>Calculating the radius of gyration</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plan view of a column is shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1089,\"width\":264,\"height\":406,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1089\" width=\"264\" height=\"406\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2>First, we have to calculate the I value about <em>x-x</em> and <em>y-y</em> axes.</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>xx</sub></em> = 33.3 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>I</em><em><sub>yy</sub></em><sub> </sub>= 2.08 x 10<sup>6</sup> mm<sup>4</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>A</em> = cross sectional area = 50 mm x 200 mm = 10,000 mm<sup>2</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Substituting the value of <em>I<sub>xx</sub></em> and cross-sectional area <em>A</em> in the above formula we can get r<sub>xx</sub>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1090,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1090\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>x-x</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1091,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1091\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is the value of the r about the <em>y-y</em> axis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Since r<sub>yy</sub> is smaller, probable failure occurs about the <em>y-y</em> plane.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Radius of Gyration (r)', 'The radius of gyration gives the stiffness of a section. It is based on the shape of the cross-section. Normally, we use this for compression members such as a column.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1086-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:55:20', '2021-01-14 16:25:20', '', 1086, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1086-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1306, 1, '2021-01-14 21:56:47', '2021-01-14 16:26:47', 'Starter Templates Image - staircase, spiral, architecture-600468.jpg', 'staircase, spiral, architecture-600468', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'staircase-spiral-architecture-600468', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:56:47', '2021-01-14 16:26:47', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/staircase-spiral-architecture-600468/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1307, 1, '2021-01-14 21:56:55', '2021-01-14 16:26:55', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of vertically applied forces on building elements are the dead loads of the building structure and some live loads. These loads tend to move the structure in a downward direction, i.e. to sink into the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The extent of any such movement depends upon;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- the ability of the foundation to distribute the loads exerted by the building over a sufficient area ensuring the stability for a particular load-bearing capacity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Different soil types have different values of load-bearing capacities. The functional requirement of foundations of buildings is to ensure that load applied by the building on to the ground should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. The bearing capacity of the ground is normally expressed in kN/m<sup>2</sup>. In most instances, this bearing capacity is very much less than the pressures likely to be exerted by the building structure if placed directly onto the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>How to reduce the pressure applied to the ground</strong>?</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1071,\"width\":236,\"height\":270,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1071\" width=\"236\" height=\"270\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1072,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1072\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1073,\"width\":220,\"height\":260,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1073\" width=\"220\" height=\"260\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1074,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1074\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The pressure applied by the building on to the ground is reduced by introducing foundation. It increases the interface area between the building and the ground. Therefore, it results in reducing the pressure applied to the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The need to withstand vertical loadings is not only limited to the lower elements of the building structure. However, such loadings are greater in magnitude at the lower sections due to the effects of accumulated loadings from the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical components under vertical loads</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1075,\"width\":599,\"height\":220,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1075\" width=\"599\" height=\"220\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All structural components, such as beams, columns, slabs, and walls must be strong enough to carry loadings imposed upon them. Any building element should not fail under loading and should not show excessive deformation. Columns and walls carry loads of floors and roofs from above. Therefore, they must resist the buckling or crush by the forces exerted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Whether a column or a wall fails under crushing or by buckling due to the effect of vertical loading depends on the ‘<strong><em>slenderness ratio</em></strong>’ of the element. It means long and slender building elements units will tend to buckle easily.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Short and broad units resist such buckling tendencies. Although the risk of buckling is higher in long and thin elements, the risk can be reduced by incorporating bracing to prevent sideways movement. This is termed as <strong><em>lateral restraint</em>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1076,\"width\":315,\"height\":180,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1076\" width=\"315\" height=\"180\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a heavily loaded situation, even short and broad sections also may be subject to failure. Most probably, the failure mode in these situations is due to crushing. However, these are very rare occurrences.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Horizontal components under vertical loads</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examples of horizontal components of a building are floors and beams. These components also must be capable of performing effectively while withstanding vertically applied loadings. This is ensured by the use of materials of sufficient strength, designed appropriately, with sufficient support to maintain stability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heavy loading conditions on horizontal elements may give rise to deflection as shown in the figure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1077,\"width\":483,\"height\":159,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1077\" width=\"483\" height=\"159\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In extreme situations, puncturing of the component, as shown in the figure, may results from shearing at a specific point.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1078,\"width\":343,\"height\":164,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1078\" width=\"343\" height=\"164\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When deflected in a simply supported situation, upper sections of beams and floors are under compression while lower sections are under tension. This may limit the full use of the strength of some materials, such as concrete, which resist well only compressive forces. Under these conditions, composite units such as reinforced concrete may be used to give a more economical design.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Vertical forces in an upward direction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Vertical forces on a building are not always in a downward direction. Sometimes they may act in upward directions. These upward forces can be resisted, by using the weight of the building. Upward loadings generate from the ground, due to changes and resulting forces of shrinkable clay or soils prone to expansion due to frost. These upward forces exerted by the ground is termed as <strong><em>heave</em></strong>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Horizontal forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1079,\"width\":381,\"height\":321,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1079\" width=\"381\" height=\"321\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Horizontal forces acting on buildings generate from many sources. &nbsp;In the case of the basement wall, it may be due to sub-soil pressure. Or on to a roof or wall, it may be due to wind pressure or due to physical loading on the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These horizontal loads may affect the stability of a building in one of two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- by overturning or rotation of the building or its components</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- by horizontal movement or sliding of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, the effects of these acts are highly undesirable. Therefore, the occurrence of these situations must be avoided by carefully designing the building. The type of foundations and the level of lateral restraint or buttressing incorporated into the design are essential to the prevention of such modes of failure. Additionally, in framed structures, the use of bracing to prevent progressive deformation or collapse is essential. This is described as the resistance of the ‘<strong>domino effect</strong>’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Oblique forces</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1080,\"width\":338,\"height\":344,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1080\" width=\"338\" height=\"344\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In some areas of a building, the external forces act at an inclination. Normally this happens when pitched roofs support on walls. A common example is wind loading. These oblique forces produce vertical and horizontal components of the applied loadings at the point of support. These can be resisted by the introduction of buttressing and/or lateral restraints.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The nature of forces acting on buildings', 'Examples of vertically applied forces on building elements are the dead loads of the building structure and some live loads. These loads tend to move the structure in a downward direction', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1070-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:56:55', '2021-01-14 16:26:55', '', 1070, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1070-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1308, 1, '2021-01-14 21:59:10', '2021-01-14 16:29:10', 'Starter Templates Image - pier, jetty, wooden-801761.jpg', 'pier, jetty, wooden-801761', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'pier-jetty-wooden-801761', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:59:10', '2021-01-14 16:29:10', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/pier-jetty-wooden-801761/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1309, 1, '2021-01-14 21:59:17', '2021-01-14 16:29:17', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Stress</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When we apply an external force to a building element, it tends to deform. This deformation is opposed by stresses or internal forces created within the fibers of the element. If the magnitude of these stresses is within the level which can be satisfactorily withstood by the material, then the building will remain structurally stable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Types of stresses</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating stress is <em>W </em>/ <em>A</em>, where <em>W </em>= load and <em>A </em>= cross-sectional area. Stress is measured in N/mm<sup>2</sup> or kN/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Compressive stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compressive stress is the internal force set up within a structural element when an externally applied force produces a tendency for the member to be compressed. Then the element is said to be in compression. Some building construction materials have higher resistance capacity for compressive stresses. A very common example is concrete. The amount of stress in a structural member will increase if the load is increased due to an increase in dead loading caused by the weight of the structural elements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Tensile stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tensile stress is the internal force which induced within an element that resists an external loading that produces a tendency to stretch the component. In this situation, the member is in tension. Steel is very good at withstanding tensile stress. But concrete is weaker in resisting tensile.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Different materials are better at withstanding the different kinds of stresses. Therefore, the use of two materials called composite materials to produce structural elements is common. Reinforced concrete beams are an example of this.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a simply supported concrete beam, the top section of the beam is in compression. So, the fibers are being crushed together. The fibers in the bottom section are being pulled apart. So, this section is in tension.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Normally, steel has been placed at the bottom to withstand the tension. And the top half of the beam is concrete to withstand the compression. In reinforced concrete, both compressive resistance of concrete, as well as tensile resistance of steel, is utilized. This makes a very economical beam section.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Shear stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When an external load is applied to a building element, sometimes it tends one part of the building element to slide past the adjacent layer. The resisting internal stress opposing this action created within the building element is called shear stress. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Torsional stress</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Torsional stress is the internal force created within a structural element that resists an externally applied loading which would cause the element to twist.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Strain</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When tensile or compressive stress is created on a building element, it tries to increase or decrease the length of the element.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The value of change in length depends upon the length of the element, the applied loading, and the material stiffness.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ratio between the change in length and the original length of the element is known as <em>strain </em>(<em>e</em>).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>e = ∂L / L where ∂l </em>= change in length and <em>L </em>= original length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The strain has no unit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effect can be seen in materials subject to shear stress. However, the deformation caused in such cases tends to change the element into a parallelogram shape.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The relationship between stress and strain (subject to loading limits, i.e. within elastic limit) is directly proportional and is a measure of the material’s stiffness. The relationship or the ratio between the stress and strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Moments</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When we apply a force on a building element, sometimes it tends the element to bend. The term given to such a tendency is the <em>moment</em>. The value of such a moment depends on the magnitude of the applied force and the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation to the point at which the loading is applied. Due to the effect of leverage, a comparatively small load applied at sufficient distances from the point of action can create large rotational force.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the structure to remain stable, moments on the structure must be in equilibrium, i.e. clockwise moments (+) must balance anticlockwise moments (–).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When multiplied by the value of applied force by the perpendicular distance from the point of action which is called lever arm we can calculate the magnitude of the moment. It is expressed in newton millimeters or kilonewton meters. When designing a building element, it is required to calculate the maximum bending moment that will be created in a structural element by the expected loading system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Building Engineering - Forces exerted on and by Buildings', 'When we apply an external force to a building element, it tends to deform. This deformation is opposed by stresses or internal forces created within the fibers of the element.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1053-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 21:59:17', '2021-01-14 16:29:17', '', 1053, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1053-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1310, 1, '2021-01-14 22:00:38', '2021-01-14 16:30:38', 'Starter Templates Image - architect, people, plan-3979490.jpg', 'architect, people, plan-3979490', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'architect-people-plan-3979490', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:00:38', '2021-01-14 16:30:38', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/architect-people-plan-3979490/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1311, 1, '2021-01-14 22:00:47', '2021-01-14 16:30:47', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In general, the <strong>Environment</strong> is considered as our surroundings. It can be natural or man-made. Sometimes, it can be a combination of the above two.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The<strong> Built Environment</strong> is the surrounding created by man. However, it may be with the help of the natural environment. Or sometimes, it may be without the help of the natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Environmental Considerations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Planning requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Building Regulations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Land restrictions by vendor or lessor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Availability of services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Local amenities including transport.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Subsoil conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Levels and topography of the land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. Adjoining buildings or land.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. Use of building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. Daylight and view aspects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The building as an environmental envelope</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Even from ancient times, man tried to modify and control the environment in which he lives to suit his requirements. During those days, caves and other natural shelters used as primitive houses, to protect from the external environment. As civilization has developed, the nature of these shelters has become more superior and complex. Simply, we can say, humankind developed from caves and natural forms of shelter to simple and then to complex artificial enclosures. However, these creations and developments have depended upon the nature of the climate in specific locations and the availability of building materials locally.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The use of protective elements is not the only way used to control the human environment. The use of energy to assist in environmental moderation has been fundamental after the discovery of fire. Primitive people used fire to provide light and heat.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Buildings are used for different purposes. Most of the time, we use buildings to house people. Or else, we use buildings to place machinery and equipment and do different types of processes, or to run offices, so on. So each occasion, it exerts differing demands in terms of the internal environment. So this has resulted in the development of buildings with associated services capable of moderating the internal conditions within desired parameters with great accuracy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Performance requirements of the building fabric</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the performance requirements of present-day buildings is to provide an acceptable internal environment. However, the level of performance of buildings depends upon several factors. The importance we place upon these individual performance requirements varies from situation to situation. Statute, regulations, and guidelines set only the minimum standards to meet. These are issued as Building Regulations. And the guidelines in Building Regulations must be adhered to in every instance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The performance requirements of buildings may be summarized as follows.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Structural stability</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To satisfactorily fulfill the functions required of a building, it must be able to withstand the loadings imposed upon it without suffering deformation or collapse. This demands the effective resistance of building elements to loadings or their safe transfer through the structural elements to the ground.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Durability</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the long-term performance of the structure and its fabric, it is very essential that the ability of components of the building to withstand the vagaries and hostilities of the environment in which they are placed. The ability of the building elements to maintain their integrity and functional ability for the required period is very important. It is fundamental to the ability of the building to perform in the long term. However, this factor mostly affects in the event of a fire in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Thermal insulation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The external fabric of a given building must provide an acceptable standard of resistance to the passage of heat. It is necessary to maintain internal conditions within fixed parameters and also to conserve energy. However, the level of thermal insulation which is desirable in an individual instance is dependent upon the use of the building, its location, and so on.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Protection from weather and Exclusion of moisture</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Moisture may enter into a building in the form of groundwater rising through capillary action, precipitation, or other possible sources. Anyhow, the building envelope should resist the passage of moisture from the exterior into the building. This ingress of moisture to the interior of the building can have several undesirable effects. It may cause the decay of timber elements, deterioration of surface finishes, and decorations. Besides, it is a risk to the health of occupants. Also, it may affect certain processes carried out in the building. Therefore, details must be incorporated in building design to resist and prevent the passage of moisture, from all undesirable sources to the interior. For the satisfactory performance of any building fabric, the exclusion of wind and water is an essential factor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Acoustic insulation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When designing and constructing a building, the passage of sound from the exterior to the interior, or between interior spaces, should be considered. However, the level of sound transmission which is acceptable will vary considerably, depending upon the nature of the use of the building and its position.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Flexibility</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Especially in industrial and commercial buildings, the ability of the building to cope with and respond to changing user needs has become very important. Therefore, the level of required future flexibility must consider in the initial design of the building. Sometimes it is handled by buildings with large open spaces originally. Then it is later subdivided by the use of partitions, which may be readily removed and relocated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Aesthetics</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The issue of building aesthetics can be considered as personal. Some consider the importance of this aspect as very minimal. While for others, it is highly important. For example, the appearance of a factory building in an industrial estate is far less important than that of a star class restaurant in the city center. The extent to which aesthetics are considered will have an unavoidable effect on the cost of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Above are some indicative factors which affect the design and performance of buildings and their components.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Building Engineering – An Introduction', 'The Built Environment is the surrounding created by man. However, it may be with the help of the natural environment. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1047-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:00:47', '2021-01-14 16:30:47', '', 1047, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1047-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1312, 1, '2021-01-14 22:01:51', '2021-01-14 16:31:51', 'Starter Templates Image - architecture, blueprint, floor plan-1857175.jpg', 'architecture, blueprint, floor plan-1857175', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'architecture-blueprint-floor-plan-1857175', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:01:51', '2021-01-14 16:31:51', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/architecture-blueprint-floor-plan-1857175/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1313, 1, '2021-01-14 22:02:00', '2021-01-14 16:32:00', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveying is a task of measuring construction work required to implement the architects\' design for new or renovated buildings. One purpose of quantity surveying is to produce a document of quantified sub-work items to represent the whole construction. &nbsp;It is known as Bills of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Objectives </strong><strong>of the Bill of Quantities</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>· to provide necessary information on the quantities of works to be carried out</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;assist bids to be prepared efficiently and accurately;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>and during the post-contract stage,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;use a priced Bill of Quantities for the preparation of interim valuation of works executed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To attain these objectives,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Separate entire construction work into different items in the Bill of Quantities. That means separated into sub activities, and when added together it represents the whole construction works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Sub activities or items are grouped under different classes of works or trades with sufficient details,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It distinguishes works of the same nature but carried out in different locations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The layout and content of the Bill of Quantities must be simple and brief. It shall be consistent with the above requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>QUANTITY SURVEYOR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To produce a Bill of Quantity, a detailed quantity surveying process has to be completed. These services are provided by a professional Quantity Surveyor (QS).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>A Quantity Surveyor is usually hired by the Owner / Architect at the inception of a project.</li><li>The QS makes;<ul><li>cost feasibility studies,</li><li>establishes the construction budget,</li><li>makes cost checks at all stages of the design process,</li><li>prepares a final Bill of Quantities.</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Bill of Quantity is a part of the bidding document, especially in Measure and Pay contracts. The bidders use information in construction drawings, specifications, and the bill of quantity as the basis for pricing of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The QS advises the owner on contractual arrangements,</li><li>compiles certificates of interim and final payment to the contractor doing the work.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Experienced Quantity Surveyors have a good knowledge of construction costs. Therefore, they can provide a design cost planning service even before actual design or construction begins. That helps the client to decide on their total budget, before the commissioning of any design work<strong>.</strong> If proper cost planning techniques are not used, it may result in costly bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SOME ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF BILL OF QUANTITIES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>No need to measure the same design or the plan by several bidders to prepare their bids for competition. It saves cost and time.</li><li>Bids submit by different bidders are consistent because all use the same bill of quantity for the preparation of their bids. Therefore at the selection stage, the client can select the most efficient and least expensive contractor for his job.</li><li>Other than plans and specifications, the client can provide a broad and clear statement of the work he requires using the bill of quantity. And then the bidder can state the price at which he is prepared to undertake the job.</li><li>It can be used as a basis for the financial administration of the contract.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'BILL OF QUANTITY & THE QUANTITY SURVEYOR', 'Quantity surveying is a task of measuring construction work required to implement the architects\' design for new or renovated buildings. One purpose of quantity surveying is to produce a document of quantified sub-work items to represent the whole construction.  It is known as Bills of Quantities.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1030-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:02:00', '2021-01-14 16:32:00', '', 1030, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2021/01/14/1030-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1314, 1, '2021-01-14 22:04:25', '2021-01-14 16:34:25', 'Starter Templates Image - building, construction, site-768815.jpg', 'building, construction, site-768815', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'building-construction-site-768815', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:04:25', '2021-01-14 16:34:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/building-construction-site-768815/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1315, 1, '2021-01-14 22:04:32', '2021-01-14 16:34:32', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A unit rate may be defined as the total overall cost of a specific item description for a quantity of one unit in the bill of quantity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This one unit shall be measured according to the S.M.M. applicable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The unit rate must include the cost of all labor, material, plant, and main contractor’s subcontractor fee, overheads, and main contractor’s profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It follows that the costs of the preliminaries are priced separately from the unit rates in the bills of quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Labor rates</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor rates include – Wages, extra payments such as allowances, overtime, and holiday payments, traveling and lodging charges, bonuses, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Material rates</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Materials - the basic price of materials must include the cost at delivery to site, percentage allowance for all waste, unloading, storing, removing to position, including hoisting or lowering, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Shrinkage and consolidation are allowed for by a percentage addition, either to the quantities of the materials or the price of the material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Prime cost</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Prime cost – when services are not executed by the builder but by the nominated sub-contractors they are included as prime cost sums. Similarly nominated suppliers’ commodities are covered by P.C. sums.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The builder is allowed profit and attendance on the prime cost sums.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Provisional Sums</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Provisional Sums – when certain building works cannot be accurately measured, a provisional sum is provided in the bill of quantities to meet the charges. Examples are the breaking of an existing foundation, insurance, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Overhead</strong>s</h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It can be divided into two types - Site and General Overheads. Some examples are director’s fee, bank charges, overdraft expenses and loss of interest, office rent, taxes, cost of office staff, cost of storage of materials, deprecation of plant and office equipment, transport and traveling expenses, branch office expenses, insurance, telephone, postage, lighting, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Preliminary items</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following basic preliminary items are normally considered for pricing – site supervision, temporary offices, storage sheds, small plants, concreting plants and hoists, cranes and passenger lifts, scaffolding, safety measures, welfare conditions, telephone, temporary roads, temporary fencing, setting out, watching and lighting, notices and fees to local authorities, maintenance of public and private roads, testing materials, temporary water and electricity for works, insurance, etc.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Unit Rate in a Bill of Quantity', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1027-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:04:32', '2021-01-14 16:34:32', '', 1027, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1027-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1316, 1, '2021-01-14 22:05:17', '2021-01-14 16:35:17', 'Starter Templates Image - hammer, books, law-719066.jpg', 'hammer, books, law-719066', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'hammer-books-law-719066', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:05:17', '2021-01-14 16:35:17', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/hammer-books-law-719066/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1317, 1, '2021-01-14 22:05:24', '2021-01-14 16:35:24', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term “Delict” used in the Roman-Dutch law denotes a wrongful act by one person in the society against another in breach of the legal rights of the latter.&nbsp; This wrong would give rise to a civil action for damages against the wrongdoer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Burchell<a href=\"#_ftn1\">[1]</a>defined delict as an unlawful, blameworthy (i.e. intentional or negligent) act or omission which causes another person damage to person or property or injury to personality and for which a civil remedy for recovery of damages is available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The word “Tort” is the corresponding term uses in the English and common law jurisdictions. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Law<a href=\"#_ftn2\">[2]</a>, Tort means a wrongful act or omission for which damages can be obtained in a civil court by the person wronged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Law of Delict in Sri Lanka mainly consists of principles drawn from Roman-Dutch law and English common law jurisdictions. Also, there are recent statutes passed by the parliament of Sri Lanka.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Case Study</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>S M Goldstein &amp; Co (Pty) Ltd. v Cathkin Park Hotel (Pty) and Another (513/98) [2000] ZASCA37; 2000 (4) SA 1019 (SCA); [2004] All SA 407 (A) (8 September 2000)</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Facts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The defendant-appellant, a building contractor, was responsible for the construction of a hotel. The building owner was the first plaintiff-respondent. The lessee and operator of the hotel was the second plaintiff-respondent. During the operation of the hotel, a fire that had its source in the fireplace in the lobby of the hotel destroyed part of the complex. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The plaintiff-respondents, claiming in delict and alleging negligence, sued against the architect, the interior decorator, the project manager, and the defendant-appellant (the contractor), in an action for damages. The case against the others has been settled or withdrawn in a lower court. Also, the lower court held the defendant-appellant liable to compensate the plaintiff-respondents for any damages suffered as a result of the fire. The defendant-appellant filed this case against the above judgment. Now the court has to find out whether he is liable or not.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The area where the hotel is located tends to be cold in winter. Therefore, a fireplace in the lobby was an important design feature. The architect and the interior decorator issued drawings and instructions to build a fireplace using Jetmaster firebox suitable for an open fire. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Jetmaster is a trade name of a company that supplies fireplaces</em>). </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A railway sleeper, impregnated with bitumen, was rested on the top of the firebox. Above that, an ornamental structure consisting of a sheet of chipboard with decorative log ends were fixed. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5>Jetmaster\'s instructions</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Jetmaster issues with every component they sold following instructions; “IMPORTANT: Combustible materials should not be fitted within 450 mm above the firebox unless adequate provision is made to insulate such materials”. The defendant-appellant, sometimes using nominated sub-contractors, constructed the hotel in general accordance with the architect’s plans. But when constructing the fireplace, he failed to adhere to Jetmaster’s instructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fireplace was in constant use. The railway sleeper was on the fireplace. This area of the fireplace was the hottest part. Besides, the sleeper was impregnated with bitumen. As a result of all these and the heat caused the sleeper to ignite. From there fire spread into the roof void via a flue that was constructed using chipboard and masonry. The fire finally destroyed part of the hotel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>The Court had to ascertain;</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Whether the defendant-appellant was negligent in constructing the hotel? </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If so</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To establish whether the reasonable builder would have taken reasonable steps to guard against such occurrence?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Were the damages recoverable in law?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To establish liability under the Aquilian action the conduct of the defendant-appellant must be legally wrongful as regards the plaintiff–respondents. In other words, the law protects the plaintiff–respondents’ interests and a breach of this duty will render the defendant-appellant legally liable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While it is obvious that positive wrongful conduct will give rise to liability if the relevant conditions are satisfied, it is uncertain whether omission to act will also give rise to such liability. Mckerron<a href=\"#_ftn1\">[3]</a> cites some instances in which legal liability may be incurred by an omission to act;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where by the prior conduct of the defendant, a potentially dangerous state of affairs was created.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where a person is in control of a thing which may cause injury to others if due care is not taken.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where a person is under a duty to act because of the office he is occupying.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where, a duty to act imposes by the statute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5>Analysis</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The facts of the case establish a prima facie case of negligence. It is clear that the design and construction of the fireplace were unsafe. Sometimes, the architect and the interior decorator might have given drawings and instructions on how to construct the fireplace. In that case, they may also have been negligent or in dereliction of their duties. But during the construction, as an experienced contractor, the defendant-appellant should notice that there is a possibility of igniting the railway sleeper with highly inflammable bitumen when it is hot. He should consider that possibility before fixing it directly over the firebox without adequate insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is as highlighted in <em>Kruger v Coetzee<a href=\"#_ftn1\"><strong>[4]</strong></a></em>, whether a <em>diligence paterfamilias</em> in the position of the defendant would have foreseen the reasonable possibility of his conduct injuring another in his person or property and causing him a patrimonial loss. The other thing, although the contractor was bound by the conditions of the contract to carry out instructions given by the architect, as a sole controller of a worksite he has to take due care and get the responsibility for what he constructed. If there was any conflict with the architect\'s instructions and the manufacturer\'s requirements, he should notify the architect before carrying out the work. National Building Regulations, which is a statute, also specify the safety requirements of this type of construction. Therefore, the defendant-appellant failed to carry out legal duties imposed by statute.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard of Care</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the questions to decide was whether the defendant-appellant had any duty of care towards plaintiff-respondents. It is not very difficult to conclude that the defendant-appellant as a qualified contractor, to whom the responsibility of construction was entrusted to, owed a duty to the plaintiff-respondent. The duty was to construct the hotel, exercising reasonable care and skill as a professional contractor, without causing patrimonial loss to him. In this construction, it seems that any reasonable contractor would refrain from something unsafe. He should follow the manufacturer\'s installation instructions, especially when they relate to safety. Here, the manufacturer\'s instructions are so simple. The only thing necessary was to increase the gap between the railway sleeper and the firebox. Or else, to add proper insulation to the railway sleeper. Since the defendant-appellant failed to do so confirm his negligence.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>CAUSATION</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having decided on the requirements of attracting liability under Aquilian action, the next is to be decided whether there is a causal link between the damage and the act or omission. Evidence placed above shows, the negligence of the defendant-appellant caused or materially contributed to the damages to the hotel and thereby caused patrimonial loss to the plaintiff-respondent.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>DEFENCES</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In a case of tortious liability, the burden of proof lies on the plaintiff. To establish a prima facie case, the plaintiff must prove all the elements of negligence. Those are as follows. He should prove the defendant owed him a duty of care. And, by his negligence, he broke that duty of care. Also, his conduct was the cause of the harm. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then the burden of proof will transfer to the defendant. It is to rebut it. If he can rebut one of the elements of negligence, that would be enough to absolve him from liability. If not, as an alternative, there are other alternatives. Those are proof of contributory negligence or voluntary assumption of risk on the part of the plaintiff.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this case, one of the defenses of the defendant-appellant was the effect on the scope of his legal duty due to the employment of an architect, safety consultant, use of nominated subcontractors by the plaintiff-respondent as the owner of the project. But the court said that it only indicates more than one party had a legal duty towards the plaintiff-respondent with the safety of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Contributory negligence as a defense</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The other defense was on contributory negligence of the first plaintiff-respondent approving the design and the choice of materials for the fireplace. But the court rejected that on the ground there were several independent experts to design, construct and manage the construction of the hotel. It was not the practice of the first plaintiff-respondent as the owner of the project to check independently whether everyone doing his work properly. Besides, the owner has an entitlement to rely on persons who gets payments for those works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Conclusion</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This case is a prime example where the liability of tort supersedes the contractual obligations. The contractor is legally bound by the conditions in a contract. But, if act negligently he will be liable under tort for the damages.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Law of Tort - English Law</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The English law concept similar to the Law of Delict is the Law of Tort. The aim of the English law of tort is to grant compensation and redress to victims of injury and loss. When we consider the primary object of a delictual action, it is to grant damages for harm done. The damages usually being in the form of monetary compensation. Principally, both are the same.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The basic principle the English law uses to find whether a person is liable or not under the tort is the ‘fault principle’. Here the plaintiff has to prove there is a duty of care, the defendant has breached that duty of care, the link between the damage and the breach of duty, and the loss occurred. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the delict, to prove the liability the plaintiff has to prove unlawfulness, fault, causation, and damage. Although these two actions are principally the same, there are some differences when building a case. For example, in a delictual case when proving the unlawfulness the only test uses is reasonableness. That means what is good and what is bad. That is a universal principle. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>But the English law uses multiple tests and principles, such as the neighbor principle (two-stage test, current test). Lord Atkin enunciated the “neighbor principle” under which if it was reasonably foreseeable that one’s failure to take care would cause injury to another, and then one owed that other a duty to take the requisite care, breach of which would give rise to liability in damages[5]. Now the Consumer Protection Act undertakes the establishment of a duty of care between the manufacturer of a product and the ultimate customer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Mixed practices in Sri Lanka</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To the field of delict in Sri Lanka, the principles of the English law of torts also have infiltrated. The most probable reason for this might be that English judges who are unfamiliar with the Roman-Dutch law of delict have turned to decide cases surfaced before them. In earlier cases such as <em>Lakeman v Bain (1855) </em>and <em>Kandasamy v Municipal Council (1905), </em>English judges meticulously applied Roman-Dutch principles. But in later cases, such as <em>Van Cuylanbury v Capper (1909), Corea v Peries (1910), </em>and <em>Sabapathy v Huntley (1937), </em>they increasingly relied on English law. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Principles such as the doctrine of strict liability as enunciated in <em>Rylands v Fletcher (1868), </em>which are unknown in the Roman-Dutch law, have also been introduced into our law. The result is that the law in our country is neither pure Roman-Dutch law nor English law. It is a combination of both systems peculiar to Sri Lanka.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Other Systems of Compensations</strong> </h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the primary functions of the law of delict is to grant compensation for those who have suffered loss or injury to their person or property. However, the important condition is establishing that the loss or injury of the plaintiff is due to the unlawfulness of the defendant. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, this method is not always effective due to several factors, especially in countries like Sri Lanka. Some of those factors are poverty, ignorance of one’s rights under the law, victim’s lack of interest, and delays in litigation. Poverty or ignorance may prevent a victim from obtaining a remedy in law. Even having obtained it, the defendant may not able to pay compensation granted by the court. Then it may result in the plaintiff to shoulder the burden of his injury or loss. Litigation is an expensive and time-consuming process. The hardship caused by the delays of the law often reverses any relief which might grant to a victim. This discourages many people from having recourse to the law to obtain compensation from injuries.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Practice in other countries</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many countries in recent times have introduced more effective ways to ensure granting compensation to victims. For example, in both France and West Germany, there is a ‘no-fault’ work accident insurance scheme. For these, employers have to contribute a pre-assessed amount. Therefore, the employee gets an assurance of obtaining compensation for sickness and injury which suffer in the course of employment, irrespective of the fault of the employer. In New Zealand, the protection covers under the Accident Compensation Act of 1972. There, the accident victims can obtain compensation without proof of fault.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Practice in Sri Lanka</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In Sri Lanka, under Workmen’s Compensation Ordinance, an employee can obtain compensation for personal injuries arising out of and in the course of their employment, irrespective of the negligence of the employer. Also, in Sri Lanka, we have a fairly developed system of insurance. It ensures that victims of industrial injury and motor accidents receive compensation. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator\"/>\n<!-- /wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Foot note</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\">[1]</a> Burchell, J., Principles of Delict, Juta, 1993, p 09</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref2\">[2]</a> Oxford University Press, Oxford Dictionary of Law, 5<sup>th</sup> Ed, p 500</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[3]</a> Mckerron R.G., <em>The law of Delict, </em>4th Ed, (1952), p 25.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[4]</a> Kruger v Coetzee 1966 (2) SA 428 (A)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-admin/post-new.php#_ftnref1\">[5]</a><em>Donoghue v Stevenson </em>1932 SC (HL) 31; 1932 SLT 317; [1932] AC 562</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Law of Delict - Case Study', 'The term “Delict” used in the Roman-Dutch law denotes a wrongful act by one person in the society against another in breach of the legal rights of the latter.  This wrong would give rise to a civil action for damages against the wrongdoer', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '917-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:05:24', '2021-01-14 16:35:24', '', 917, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/917-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1318, 1, '2021-01-14 22:07:05', '2021-01-14 16:37:05', 'Starter Templates Image - money, home, coin-2724245.jpg', 'money, home, coin-2724245', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'money-home-coin-2724245', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:07:05', '2021-01-14 16:37:05', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/money-home-coin-2724245/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1319, 1, '2021-01-14 22:07:10', '2021-01-14 16:37:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc. It prevents bidders in the construction industry from submitting more realistic and competitive bidding. It increases the risk from the bidders’ point of view. Therefore, construction experts thought it is sensible to compute the cost of contracts on present prices, keeping provisions of price adjustment for probable fluctuations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of preparation of a bid, the bidders do not have a method to predict the future material, labour, and plant prices. Also, they do not willing to take the risk and prepare bids at current market prices and absorb the extra cost. So, they try to pass the risk to the client. If there is no way to recover the additional cost due to the increase in materials, plant, and labour prices, they simply include mark-up for rates or to the bid at the bidding stage. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, there is no firm methodology available for predicting this mark-up accurately. It is only guesswork. If the contractor adds a high mark-up, most probably he will not be selected. Any other contractor who has used a lower mark-up or zero mark-ups will be selected. Then, it may lead to a cash problem from the contractor’s side. As a result, it causes delays of work and ultimately the employer also suffers. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Remedy available</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction professionals can avoid these situations by introducing a price fluctuation clause in the tender document. Then the bidders have the opportunity to submit a realistic bid without adding an arbitrary mark-up for escalation. It reduces the risk of the bidder. hence it is a benefit for the bidder. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>At the time of implementation, the contractor is reimbursed for any additional expenditure due to price escalation. The employer also gets benefits from the price escalation clause.  The bid he receives from the bidder is very realistic. In addition, he has to pay an additional sum only if there are increases in the cost of resources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Price Variation reimbursement methods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>1. Conventional / Traditional Method</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditionally, price fluctuation was paid only for specified inputs. Computations were based on the actual consumption of such inputs during the period of each interim valuation. Also, the base price of specified materials should be mentioned in the contract document. The contractor has to submit purchasing invoices of such materials with the interim valuation.  Adjustment to the contract price was calculated by applying the difference between the basic price and current price and the actual consumption.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Disadvantages of the conventional method;</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- This method limits the reimbursement to specified inputs only. Risks of prediction of other inputs were still with the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Calculation was laborious and tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The contractor had to collect many documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Certification of claim also was very tedious.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4><strong><em>Example of computation of price fluctuation in the traditional method</em></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":909,\"width\":722,\"height\":162,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/1-1024x230.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-909\" width=\"722\" height=\"162\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":910,\"width\":750,\"height\":326,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2-1024x446.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-910\" width=\"750\" height=\"326\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":911,\"width\":758,\"height\":181,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/3-1024x245.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-911\" width=\"758\" height=\"181\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>2. Formula Method (used in Sri Lanka)</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula method introduced by the ICTAD (CEDA) provides a mechanism for contract price adjustment due to open market escalation in specified construction inputs such as major building materials, hire charges of plants, and wages for the labour. When we compare this method with the traditional method, computation using the formula is much easier. Also, it needs lesser documents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":912,\"width\":646,\"height\":65,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-912\" width=\"646\" height=\"65\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>F &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Price variation for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Valuation of work for the interim valuation period (Work done + 80% Materials at site)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>V<sub>na</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Value of non-adjustable elements for the interim valuation period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Input percentage of input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Base index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xc</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; = Current index for input X</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From the interim bill, we can find the values of V and V<sub>na</sub>. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>P<sub>x</sub> values are available in the Tender document.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>I<sub>xb</sub> and I<sub>xc</sub> values are available in the respective monthly statistical bulletin of ICTAD (CEDA).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Price Fluctuations', 'The cost of materials, plant, and labour used for construction works are highly varied in the market due to various reasons, such as demand variations, scarcity, taxes, changes in currency markets, seasonal factors, etc.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '908-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:07:10', '2021-01-14 16:37:10', '', 908, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/908-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1320, 1, '2021-01-14 22:08:25', '2021-01-14 16:38:25', 'Starter Templates Image - hammer, horizontal, court-802301.jpg', 'hammer, horizontal, court-802301', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'hammer-horizontal-court-802301', '', '', '2021-01-14 22:08:25', '2021-01-14 16:38:25', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/hammer-horizontal-court-802301/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
