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(2034, 1, '2024-06-11 02:42:26', '2024-06-10 21:12:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineering is a dynamic field that integrates the principles of engineering with the latest technological advancements to design, construct, and maintain essential infrastructure. To meet the demanding requirements of the profession, civil engineers rely heavily on specialized software tools. These programs not only improve productivity but also enhance accuracy, efficiency, and collaboration across projects. Below, we explore some of the most important software tools that civil engineers use today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/civil-3d/overview?term=1-YEAR&amp;tab=subscription\">AutoCAD Civil 3D</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>AutoCAD Civil 3D is one of the most widely used software for civil engineering design and documentation. It supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows and helps civil engineers plan, design, and manage civil infrastructure projects. Its features include 3D modeling, dynamic design, and drafting tools that are integral for road design, land development, and transportation projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Integration:</strong> Supports Building Information Modeling (BIM), facilitating the efficient design and documentation of infrastructure projects.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Comprehensive Toolset:</strong> Offers extensive tools for surveying, designing, and visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interoperability:</strong> High compatibility with other Autodesk products, enhancing workflow efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Large user base and abundant resources for support and learning.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for small firms or individual users.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve for beginners, requiring significant training and practice.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires a powerful computer configuration to run smoothly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. <strong><a href=\"https://staad.pro/\">STAAD.Pro</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>STAAD.Pro is a popular structural analysis and design software used by civil engineers to perform 3D model generation, linear static analysis, and advanced dynamic analysis. It supports the design of structures like buildings, bridges, and towers by providing a comprehensive range of analysis tools that conform to various international standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Supports various structural analysis tasks and works with different international standards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Detailed Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex analysis including dynamic, seismic, and nonlinear analyses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Bentley Systems software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Can be less intuitive and dated compared to newer software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires significant time to master all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000\">SAP2000</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SAP2000 is another powerful tool for structural analysis and design. Known for its simplicity and versatility, SAP2000 is employed for designing and analyzing any type of structural system, including buildings, bridges, and special structures. Its user-friendly interface and robust analytical capabilities make it a favorite among professionals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User-friendly:</strong> Intuitive interface and easy-to-use functionalities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Capabilities:</strong> Excellent for complex structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Suitable for a wide range of structures, from simple to complex.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Price:</strong> High cost, which might be prohibitive for smaller practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive and might require high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/etabs\">ETABS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ETABS (Extended 3D Analysis of Building Systems) is specialized for building structures. It offers an intuitive and sophisticated interface coupled with advanced design features. ETABS is ideal for multi-story building analysis and design, incorporating everything from the simplest 2D frames to the most complex 3D models.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Tailored specifically for building structures, offering specialized tools and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>3D Modeling:</strong> Offers comprehensive 3D modeling and visualization capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integrated Design:</strong> Supports an integrated approach for architectural, structural, and MEP design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for smaller firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Steep Learning Curve:</strong> Requires time and training to fully utilize all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/architecture\">Revit</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Revit is a powerful BIM software by Autodesk used for creating detailed 3D models of buildings and infrastructure. Revit allows for the integrated design and collaboration of architectural, structural, and MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) elements, providing a comprehensive solution for multidisciplinary teams working on a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Focused:</strong> Excellent BIM capabilities, facilitating integrated design and collaboration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Multidisciplinary:</strong> Supports architectural, structural, and MEP design within a single platform.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Visualization:</strong> Strong visualization tools for design presentation and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High initial and subscription costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Performance:</strong> Can be slow with very large models, requiring high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve and requires significant training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. <strong><a href=\"https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html\">MATLAB</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing and is particularly useful in civil engineering for tasks that involve matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementing algorithms, and creating user interfaces. It is especially beneficial for computational mechanics, simulation, and modeling tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatile:</strong> Excellent for computational tasks, simulations, and modeling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Powerful:</strong> Highly capable for complex numerical analysis and data visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Extensible:</strong> Wide range of toolboxes for various applications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Expensive licensing, especially with additional toolboxes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires understanding of programming and mathematical concepts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Not specifically geared towards civil engineering, may require customization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. <strong><a href=\"https://www.oracle.com/construction-engineering/primavera-p6/\">Primavera P6</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Primavera P6 is a project management software that is commonly used in civil engineering for planning, managing, and executing large scale projects. It assists in scheduling, resource allocation, and project tracking, helping to ensure that projects are delivered on time and within budget.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Robust Scheduling:</strong> Excellent for large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Powerful resource management features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reporting:</strong> Provides detailed reporting and analytics.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High cost for licensing.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Can be complex to set up and use effectively.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Might require additional tools for full integration with other software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. <strong><a href=\"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/project-management-software\">MS Project</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Microsoft Project is another effective project management tool used in the civil engineering domain. It helps teams to plan projects, assign tasks, track progress, manage budgets, and analyze workloads. Its integration with other Microsoft Office tools adds to its versatility and usability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Ease of Use:</strong> User-friendly interface familiar to those who use other Microsoft Office products.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Microsoft products like Excel, Outlook, and SharePoint.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Offers robust features for resource allocation and tracking.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive, especially for large teams.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Features:</strong> May lack some advanced features found in more specialized project management tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Customization:</strong> Limited customization options compared to some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9. <strong><a href=\"https://www.civildesigner.com/\">Civil Designer</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil Designer is an all-in-one civil engineering software suite that supports infrastructure design and documentation needs. It covers a range of services from roads, stormwater drainage, and water supply networks, to sewer design – making it an indispensable tool for municipal engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>All-in-One:</strong> Comprehensive suite covering multiple aspects of civil engineering design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specific Focus:</strong> Tailored towards civil designers, incorporating tools specifically for roads, stormwater, and sewer design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Good support and learning resources available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Can be challenging to learn and master, especially for beginners.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interface:</strong> May not be as modern or intuitive as some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing costs can be high.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">10. <strong><a href=\"https://www.bentley.com/software/plaxis-3d/\">PLAXIS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>PLAXIS is a finite element geotechnical engineering software for analyzing the deformation and stability in soil and rock engineering projects. It is particularly advantageous for tasks involving excavations, embankments, and tunneling, providing powerful analysis tools and user-friendly interfaces for engineers specialized in geotechnical work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Designed specifically for geotechnical analysis, making it highly specialized.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex geotechnical calculations and simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Relatively user-friendly for its advanced capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High licensing costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialized Use:</strong> Mainly for geotechnical engineering, so it may not be useful for more general civil engineering tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires powerful computer hardware to perform advanced simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the ever-evolving field of civil engineering, staying proficient with the latest software is essential. These tools not only streamline tasks but also foster collaboration, improve precision, and ultimately contribute to the success of engineering projects. As the field continues to advance, new software and updates to existing tools will undoubtedly continue to reshape the way civil engineers work, enabling them to meet the complex challenges of tomorrow\'s infrastructure needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ever wonder which type of software is best suited for you? <strong><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/best-software-for-civil-engineering/\">Click here</a> </strong>to find out</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Essential Software for Civil Engineers in 2024', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2023-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-11 02:42:26', '2024-06-10 21:12:26', '', 2023, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2034', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1913, 1, '2023-05-12 18:21:29', '2023-05-12 12:51:29', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. Sometimes, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I<strong>n the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I<strong>n the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect. But he has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site. He is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works. Therefore, clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-12 18:21:29', '2023-05-12 12:51:29', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1913', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1911, 1, '2023-05-12 18:17:57', '2023-05-12 12:47:57', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Employer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer is also called the client or building owner. He is the organization or person who commissions the construction project. The important thing is that employer is the person who pays the cost of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Much of the success of a building contract will depend on the employer and the motivation given by him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s prime role is to establish a structure for the management of the project and to make sure that it works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer has a substantial influence on the design of the project with respect both to functional efficiency and overall appearance. Therefore, he has to take particular care to:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>understand fully the purpose of the building;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>guarantee that the necessities of the end user are accommodated;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>communicate those necessities to the architect/designer;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>appoint an architect/designer with proven ability in designing buildings that satisfy users’ requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure a satisfactory outcome, the employer should collaborate well with the architect/designer and his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, these conditions do not often operate in practice. For example, the employer impatiently demands drawings, and cost estimates. &nbsp;Then, he requires bids and ultimately a completed building in a short space of time. This will result inadequate drawings and other contract documents, prepared in hurry. Final, this may be a reason for many problems and disputes when the work is underway on the site. Therefore, sufficient time must be allowed for the proper planning of the project and for contractors to price and return the bills of quantities and form of bid. Otherwise, contractors have to price high to cover themselves against unidentified risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As far as possible, the employer should refrain from requesting changes to the original design as the work proceeds. Such variations often result in delays and disorganization of the work. It also gives rise to increased costs and claims from the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is very important that the employer shall honour the payment certificates issued by the architect within the period indicated in the appendix to the form of the contract. Contractors should be promptly paid to prevent cash flow problems. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it should be borne in mind that most employers want what they need when they want it, and at a price, they can afford.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer’s purpose in starting a building project is usually driven by the need for the project as a functional unit or as an investment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The possible objectives of the employer are as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(a) Cost-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize capital cost</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize capital cost/value ratio</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reach necessary income cash flow profile</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize management costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize maintenance and insurance costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize tax liability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>be energy efficient.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(b) Marketability - maximize present value or at future disposal (freehold or otherwise).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(c) Use-related</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>optimize operational requirements of the intended occupier(s)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect the intended occupier’s requirements/ability to afford</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>meet social / occupier’s special needs (e.g. disabled).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(d) Environmental</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize health and safety risks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>choose materials that reflect sustainability</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>Aesthetically please (e.g. impression on occupier’s customers)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize any alterations to specific features</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>reflect planning authority’s policies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize possible opposition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>maximize the comfort of occupants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize inconvenience to others during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(e) Timing</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>construct within a defined period</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>• </strong>minimize risks of delay during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer also has a dual management function:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to manage the client input;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To co-ordinate functional and administrative needs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To resolve conflicts;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as the formal point of contact for the project;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>to supply the technical expertise, to assess, procure, monitor, and control the external resources needed to implement the project.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The employer should also coordinate and resolve conflicts between all interested sections of the employer’s organization. He is responsible for ensuring that all necessary decisions are made on time. Timely decisions will avoid unnecessary delays and reduce increased costs. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Architect</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The term ‘design professional’ is often used to refer to the architect, and engineer as they perform their planning, design, and construction liaison tasks on a construction project. </em><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is common to use the words architect-engineer, and architectural-engineering firm, for the party engaged in carrying out these tasks.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The role played by each of these two professionals varies considerably depending on the type of project.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If it is a building or other facility project, such as a new residence, school, hotel, or apartment building, the architect is likely to lead the planning and design team.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If the project involves constructing a highway, bridge, dam, pipeline, or industrial plant, the architect role will be very small role. Depending on the project, the engineer (actually many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is often regarded as the leader of the building team in a building project. He normally receives a commission to design and supervise the construction of the building.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect will most likely need assistance from other specialists. For example, structural engineers may be required to design the structural frame, mechanical and electrical engineers to design the M &amp; E services, and quantity surveyors to advice on contractual and cost aspects and prepare bills of quantities and contract documentation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is usually responsible for the preparation of the contract, including the formulation of designs for the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is practically in sole control of the project until the contract is signed. But, he should make it clear to all bidders that he is acting on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Once work has started on the site, he is responsible for ensuring that the contractor carries out the whole of the work under the contract to the architect’s reasonable satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect is normally the only member of the building team with an overall view of the project. His functions usually include liaison with the employer, representatives of local authorities, consultants, and specialists. Liaison with the contractor may start at an earlier or later stage, depending on the type of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s first task, after the appointment, is to discuss with the employer his building requirements. This usually emerges as a list of needs, commonly referred to as “the brief”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong><em>The brief</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The brief is a statement that specifies the scope of the project. It defines the objectives to be achieved and lays out in a general way what the final product will accomplish. The brief can be prepared by the owner as a means of clarifying the need for the project, even before the project manager or design professionals are engaged; if used in this way, it will be the basis upon which those prospective consultants prepare their proposals. On the other hand, it can also be prepared with the help of the project manager or design professional after they are engaged. These consultants, with experience on similar projects, can assist the owner in identifying and clarifying needs and setting forth the project’s scope. A well-prepared brief, consisting of only a few pages, is essential in forming the basis for all that follows throughout the project life cycle. The development of the </em><em>programme</em><em> will logically follow from this initial defining statement.<strong></strong></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When both site details and the major building requirements are known, preliminary designs can be prepared. At this stage, the architect will begin to select his team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When preparing preliminary schemes, it is necessary to consider the comparative costs of alternative proposals, and for that purpose, a quantity surveyor should be appointed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect’s process then follows often on the following lines:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"a\"} -->\n<ol type=\"a\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of preliminary schemes, including estimates, as part of a feasibility study.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>After approval by the employer, preparation of sketch plans and approximate estimates.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of structural and services schemes either by consultants / specialist sub-contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of cost plans in consultation with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of working drawings, invitations for bids from specialist suppliers and sub-contractors, if these items are to be dealt with as prime cost sums.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preparation of bills of quantities with the quantity surveyor.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Invite suitable contractors to bid. To enable them to reach a firm decision, they will be informed of the general nature of the work, the date when bills will be available, and the dates for submission of bids and completion of works.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formal invitation to bid with full documentation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of bids, advice to employer on the selection of contractor, and preparation of contract document.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Supervision of construction work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying payments to the contractor during the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issuing variation orders and other architect’s instructions as necessary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Directing how provisional sums are to be spent.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Securing and remedying defects at the end of the defects liability period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Certifying the final account.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Closing–out the contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The architect acts as an expert adviser / agent for the employer. Where the architect is named in the articles of agreement, the contractor is justified in treating every order received from the architect as a direct order from the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is, however, unwise for the architect to issue a variation orders covering a significant variation to the contract, without receiving the employer’s prior approval.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some architects’ main faults are issuing inadequate details, working to unrealistic programs, and mainly excessive changes to designs during construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For non-facility projects, the overall role of the engineer is much the same as that provided by the architect on facilities projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The engineer takes charge of the planning and design phase, coordinating the various parties and their activities, often including the contractor selection and project inspection tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the project, the engineer (really many specialties) may be involved with utility studies, structural design, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, data communications systems, roadway layout, pavement design, and earthwork and foundation systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For a facilities project, the engineer typically fills a supporting role, providing planning and design services in the geotechnical, structural, mechanical, and electrical aspects of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities of the various project elements. Sometimes, this work is performed in conjunction with that of the cost estimator.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many construction works, a schedule of quantities is prepared for most types of contracts, including lump sum and unit price. In other works, the quantity surveyor prepares schedules of quantities for unit-price contracts, while the quantity take-off work for lump-sum contracts is left to individual bidders.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quantity surveys are conducted at various points during the planning and design phase, not only during construction document development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the stage at which a quantity survey is performed, the quantities might include such detailed information as the number of cubic meters of a certain type of concrete and the number of linear meters of a certain size of communication cable. With less detail available, they might indicate the areas of different types of interior walls or even simply the volume or area of a facility devoted to certain types of use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction cost, construction management, and construction communications are key problem areas for an employer who has commissioned an important building or engineering project. A quantity surveyor is professionally trained, qualified, and experienced in dealing with these problems on behalf of the employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is essentially a cost expert whose main task is to ensure that the project is kept within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the services he offers are preliminary cost advice and cost planning, preparation of bid documents, advice on the type of contract and method of obtaining bids, negotiation with contractors, valuation of work in progress, and settlement of the final account. He will at all times need to cooperate very closely with the architect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Range of services that Quantity Surveyors can offer:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Feasibility studies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Procurement procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Budget Estimating.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Cost / Design comparison.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e) Contractual procedure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>f) Value advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>g) Preparation of Bill of Quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>h) Bid evaluation and reporting.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Site re-measurements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>j) Rate negotiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>k) Checking of monthly payments and final accounts.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>l) Financial reporting and cash flow projections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>m) Claims assessment and negotiations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>n) Advice on and participation in arbitration.&nbsp; <strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Role of the Quantity Surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As building work increased in volume and complexity, employers became dissatisfied with the method used for settling the cost of the work and recognized the advantage of employing an independent quantity surveyor. His job was to prepare an accurate bill of quantities to be priced by bidding contractors and measure and value any variations that might occur during the progress of the works.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An authoritative RICS report (1970) stated “the quantity surveyor’s role is to ensure that resources of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing, financial management for projects and a cost consultancy service to client and designer during the whole construction process”.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"1\"} -->\n<ol type=\"1\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preliminary Cost Advice</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>From the inception of a new building project, the quantity surveyor can give practical advice on the likely cost of the scheme.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can advise on the comparative costs of alternative layouts, materials, components, and methods of construction.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He can also assess how long it will take to build and can produce estimates of future maintenance and operating costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the employer’s brief is finished, the quantity surveyor can prepare a realistic budget and a cost plan showing the distribution of costs over the various elements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost Planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cost planning aims to help all members of the design team to arrive jointly at practical and efficient designs for the project and to keep within the budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Effective cost planning will help to ensure that everything follows in accordance with the estimate, from the successful contractor’s bid to the final project cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the employer decides to change his plans and introduce variations, the quantity surveyor will assess the cost implication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Constant monitoring means that the risk of overspending can be identified at an early stage and early corrective action can be taken.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Cooperation between Architect and Quantity Surveyor – for cost planning</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The Quantity Surveyor acts as a specialist adviser to the architect on all matters concerned with building and engineering costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>He offers considerable assistance to the architect in advising on the financial effect of the design proposal. It helps in ensuring the money available is put to the best possible use and that final costs are kept within the agreed budget.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where the estimated cost of an element exceeds the cost target, then either the element must be re-designed or other cost targets reduced.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Where several design elements would have to be adjusted to keep costs within the total cost limit, and if this would result in a building of undesirably low quality, the design team should request additional funds from the employer.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The quantity surveyor’s cost information will vary from major design alternatives, such as the size and height of residential blocks, to cost studies into alternative forms of construction, cladding, and finishes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The fundamental question must often be asked such as “is this expenditure really necessary?” or “is there a better way of meeting the particular need?”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>in the public and private Sectors</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both the public and private sectors, the quantity surveyor as a member of the design team and advises the employer and architects on the likely costs of alternative designs.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>His advice enables design and construction at all stages to be controlled within predetermined limits of expenditure. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He prepares bills of quantities, negotiates with contractors, and prepares forecasts of final costs and valuation for payments to the contractor as work proceeds. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is responsible for the measurement and valuation of variations in the work during the contract and for the preparation and agreeing of the contractor’s final account.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Appointment of an independent quantity surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As long ago as 1983 the RICS (Quantity Surveying Division) encouraged the appointment of independent quantity surveyors to provide clients with truly independent and authoritative advice.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The client guide issued by the RICS on the above matter illustrates the advantages of appointing the quantity surveyor at the inception stage of a scheme so that he can give advice on costs and contractor procurement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Role of the Quantity Surveyor </strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>in the Contracting Organization</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In contracting organizations, the duties of the quantity surveyor will vary according to the size of the firm employing him.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantity surveyor employed by the contractor will aim to secure maximum payments for the work done at the earliest possible time to avoid any possible cash flow problems. However, this has to be undertaken within the provisions of the contract. The contractor cannot receive more than his contractual entitlements.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor’s activities can include;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing bills of quantities for small projects,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Collecting information about the cost of various operations from which the contractor can prepare future estimates,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing precise details of the materials required for the contracts in hand,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Compiling target figures so that operatives can be paid production bonuses,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Preparing interim costing so that the financial position of the contract can be ascertained as the work proceeds and appropriate action is taken when necessary,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Planning contracts and preparing progress charts in conjunction with site management,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Making application to the architect for variation orders if drawings or site instructions vary the work,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Agreeing on the value of variations and subcontractors’ accounts, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Comparing the costs of alternative methods of carrying out various operations such as temporary works so that the most economical can be adopted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Project Manager</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager and their staff become important members of the building team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is likely that the project manager will be engaged early in the planning process and will serve throughout the project life cycle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Also, the project manager might be engaged somewhat later in the process, after some of the preliminary planning and feasibility analysis is completed, especially if those early efforts were conducted within the owner’s organization.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The project manager will act on the owner’s behalf for the <em>entire </em>project and may serve in this role on multiple simultaneous projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Land surveyor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As various sites are being investigated and especially after one has been selected, land surveyors may be engaged.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For building projects, this work includes investigation of property records, easements and rights of way, establishment or re-establishment of property corners and boundaries, determination of land contours and slopes, and location of existing improvements, natural features, and obstructions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A pipeline or highway project can involve much preliminary route layout as various alternative routes are investigated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This effort includes on-the-ground, aerial/photogrammetric, and satellite-based global positioning system methods that lead to route layouts, various kinds of maps, and geographic information system databases for use in project planning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Surveyors may also be involved in the construction phase, but they are equally important as part of the planning and design team.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Cost estimator</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If funding is limited, the owner will desire an estimate of the final cost beginning early in the project’s life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Obviously, until final construction contracts are arranged, this estimate can only be an approximation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The cost estimator is responsible for compiling this information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost estimates can be prepared at various levels of detail.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the planning stage, little information is available about the physical properties of the project elements. Therefore, the estimate of cost has little detail. As more design is developed, the cost estimator provides more detailed cost numbers. The degree of accuracy improves as more detail is developed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, early in the planning process, when little more than the total project area is known (and that perhaps only preliminarily), the cost estimate is probably accurate to within ±30%. Part-way through the design process, cost estimates has to be accurate to within ±20%. When final construction documents are ready for the tender process, an estimate of the accuracy of ±10% can be expected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although we imply that the cost estimator is a separate member of the team, often the architectural or engineering designer performs this task in association with the various design activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>engineer’s estimate </em>is often used for that estimate prepared after design development.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Structural Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He is commonly a consultant to the architect. The structural engineer would look at the proposed design from a ‘practicability of construction’ point of view. The architect will provide an artistic approach to the clients’ idea but the structural engineer will look at the design of the structure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Structural Engineer provides specialized design advice which is coordinated by the architect. In civil engineering projects, the lead design engineer will generally be a civil engineer and will coordinate the design advice from other specialist engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These specialist designers will often take on supervisory duties as well as design. The purpose would be to visit the site and inspect the work to ensure that the work is produced in accordance with the design. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Civil engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineers are involved with the design, development, and construction of a huge range of projects in the built and natural environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely, and well-resourced completion of infrastructure projects in many areas, including highway construction, waste management, coastal development, and geotechnical engineering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design, and supervise the construction of projects. They work in several different settings and, with experience, can run projects as project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting engineers turn their plans into reality.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Typical work activities include:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Developing detailed designs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management in specialist roles</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Supervising bidding procedures and putting together proposals</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing, supervising, and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering issues</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing budgets and other project resources</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying, formalizing, and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices, and safety on all work assignments • Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and within budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Correct any project deficiencies that affect production, quality, and safety requirements before final evaluation and project reviews.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Contractor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor is the person or the firm who undertakes to complete a building project in accordance with the contract documents on behalf of the employer. He should have full control of all operations on site. It includes the works carried out by nominated subcontractors, with whom he has a direct contractual relationship through subcontracts.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under the conditions of contract (JCT80), the contractor is to proceed regularly and diligently with the works and complete them by a specified date. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the contractor liable for the payment of liquidated damages.<strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He must insure the building operations against fire and possible injury to persons or property during the construction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He receives all his instructions through the architect. But he has dealings with other parties to the contract, such as the quantity surveyor, when he measures and values completed work. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor employs personnel to take charge of work on the site. For large projects, there can be a site agent, while on small schemes, a foreman will probably be sufficient. The contractor often employs a quantity surveyor to safeguard his financial interests. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Building services engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy-using elements in buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They have an important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most effective use of natural resources and protect public safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This includes all equipment and materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade engineering, and even acoustics.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend to specialize in one of the following areas:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Electrical engineering</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Mechanical engineering, and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>• Public health.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Managing and forecasting spending, using whole life cycle costing techniques, ensuring that work is kept to budget</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing on these with clients, if working in consultancy, and putting out tenders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Working with detailed diagrams, plans, and drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design all the systems required for the project</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Designing site-specific equipment as required</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Commissioning, organizing, and assessing the work of contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Overseeing and supervising the installation of building systems and specifying maintenance and operating procedures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Monitoring building systems and processes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Facilities management</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meet legislative and health and safety requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The clerk of works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site. He is usually a tradesman with many years of practical experience.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when ‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows and were left to plan and supervise the ‘works’ associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>By the nineteenth century, the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works. Therefore, clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and understanding of the construction process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The clerk of works is the person who must ensure the quality of both materials and workmanship. To this end, he must be impartial and independent in any decisions and judgments. They cannot normally, under the quality role, be employed by the contractor – only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their role is not to judge, but simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to the role.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', '<strong>The Building Team</strong>', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1878-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-12 18:17:57', '2023-05-12 12:47:57', '', 1878, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1911', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1921, 1, '2023-05-14 12:24:40', '2023-05-14 06:54:40', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Purpose of the bidding document</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The most significant purposes of the Bidding Document are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) To instruct bidders on the procedure for submission of bids (steps, what to do, when, etc.);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ii) To describe works to be procured (specifications / BOQ, etc.);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iii) To inform the bidders of criteria for evaluation (price &amp; non-price factors);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iv) To define the conditions of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The volume of the bidding document varies with the type and size of the project (less complex/more complex, civil works, etc.). It is necessary that the bidding document is coherent and comprehensive and that they reflect the intentions of the client and the end users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Essential features of bidding documents</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Essential features of good quality bidding documents are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Comprehensiveness in scope</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Clarity in content</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bidding documents must provide all the information necessary for bidders to prepare complete and responsive bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should describe clearly and precisely;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The work to be done;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The place of construction, time period;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Maintenance requirements;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Other relevant terms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Drawings should be consistent with the text of technical specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If alternative bids are permitted, this should be expressly stated. The manner of submission and the conditions under which alternative bids may be submitted and be eligible for consideration should also be clearly stated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should indicate the methods, terms, and conditions of bid evaluation and the factors or bases (including those unquantifiable in monetary terms and the specific weight to be given) to be taken into account in comparing bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Elements of bidding documents</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the detail and complexity of bidding documents vary depending on the kind of work to be procured and the size of the contracts, they should normally include the following elements:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Invitation to Bid (Tender Notice &amp; Bid Data Sheets)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Instructions to Bidders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bidding Data</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bid or Tender Form</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Form of Bid Security</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- General Conditions of Contract</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Special Conditions of Contract, Conditions of Particular Application, or Contract Data</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Technical specifications</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bill of Quantities (where applicable)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Agreement</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Performance Guarantee</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Bank Guarantee</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Invitation to bid / tender notice</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The invitation to Bid normally takes the form of a letter inviting interested bidders to bid for the tender. It should describe briefly the:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Scope of the work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ii) Bidders who are eligible to bid;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iii) Information on the closing date of the tender;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iv) The place where bidding documents can be obtained;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>v) The fee chargeable for such documents;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>vi) Availability of bidding document for inspection, free of charge;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>vii) Bid Security amount;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>viii) Name of client;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ix) Name of Project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purpose of the Letter of Invitation to Bid is to provide such information as is necessary to enable potential bidders to judge for themselves whether they should pursue the matter any further.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fee for bidding documents should be only to cover the cost of preparing bidding documents. It should also be adequate to prevent frivolous requests for bidding documents. However excessive charges could discourage potential bidders from taking them out and thereby reducing competition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Instructions to bidders</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This section of the bidding documents is intended to explain to intending bidders the nature and scope of the tender and should provide all information that will be of assistance to bidders in preparing their bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It would naturally vary in contents and complexity from contract to contract but should ensure that intending bidders are quite clear about the requirements of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Project Description</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding document should include a general description of the project; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Work to be performed,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Site location and information as to its accessibility and all other relevant local conditions,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e.g. geophysical or climatic conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Qualifications of Bidders</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The qualifications and experience of bidders considered necessary and acceptable to the client should be appropriately spelled out.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Normally, this takes the form of requiring the bidder to submit satisfactory evidence of having, in the last five years, undertaken a number of similar projects of the same or larger size, completed successfully.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Submission of Bids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The closing date, time, and place where sealed bids are to be delivered should be clearly stated. The time allowed for the submission of bids should be adequate so that competition is not impaired.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Extension of Bidding Periods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should expressly reserve the right of the client, at its discretion, to extend the bid closing date. The deadline for submitting bids should, however, only be extended where such an extension will result in greater competition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Period of Bid Validity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The period of bid validity depends upon the complexity of the procurement. The client shall ensure that the period so specified is sufficient to enable the completion of the evaluation of bids, obtain all requisite approvals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Lengthy periods of bid validity are discouraged as they could result in bidders quoting higher prices than necessary as a hedge against inflation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Criteria for Bid Evaluation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Apart from price, other factors other than price that will affect the award should be kept to a minimum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The invitation should identify those factors which, in addition to price, will be given consideration in the evaluation of bids and should explain how these factors will influence the bid evaluation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Rejection of Bids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A statement indicating the client\'s right to reject any or all bids is normally included in the bidding document. However, only bids that do not substantially meet the specifications or bidding requirements can be rejected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Award of Contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The manner in which the contract will be awarded should be clearly stated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'BIDDING DOCUMENT for Works contracts', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'bidding-document-for-works-contracts', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:24:42', '2023-05-14 06:54:42', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1921', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1923, 1, '2023-05-14 12:24:40', '2023-05-14 06:54:40', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Purpose of the bidding document</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The most significant purposes of the Bidding Document are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) To instruct bidders on the procedure for submission of bids (steps, what to do, when, etc.);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ii) To describe works to be procured (specifications / BOQ, etc.);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iii) To inform the bidders of criteria for evaluation (price &amp; non-price factors);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iv) To define the conditions of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The volume of the bidding document varies with the type and size of the project (less complex/more complex, civil works, etc.). It is necessary that the bidding document is coherent and comprehensive and that they reflect the intentions of the client and the end users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Essential features of bidding documents</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Essential features of good quality bidding documents are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Comprehensiveness in scope</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Clarity in content</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bidding documents must provide all the information necessary for bidders to prepare complete and responsive bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should describe clearly and precisely;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The work to be done;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- The place of construction, time period;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Maintenance requirements;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Other relevant terms.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Drawings should be consistent with the text of technical specifications.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If alternative bids are permitted, this should be expressly stated. The manner of submission and the conditions under which alternative bids may be submitted and be eligible for consideration should also be clearly stated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should indicate the methods, terms, and conditions of bid evaluation and the factors or bases (including those unquantifiable in monetary terms and the specific weight to be given) to be taken into account in comparing bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Elements of bidding documents</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While the detail and complexity of bidding documents vary depending on the kind of work to be procured and the size of the contracts, they should normally include the following elements:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Invitation to Bid (Tender Notice &amp; Bid Data Sheets)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Instructions to Bidders</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bidding Data</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bid or Tender Form</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Form of Bid Security</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- General Conditions of Contract</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Special Conditions of Contract, Conditions of Particular Application, or Contract Data</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Technical specifications</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Bill of Quantities (where applicable)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Agreement</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Performance Guarantee</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Specimen Form of Bank Guarantee</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Invitation to bid / tender notice</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The invitation to Bid normally takes the form of a letter inviting interested bidders to bid for the tender. It should describe briefly the:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>i) Scope of the work;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ii) Bidders who are eligible to bid;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iii) Information on the closing date of the tender;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>iv) The place where bidding documents can be obtained;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>v) The fee chargeable for such documents;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>vi) Availability of bidding document for inspection, free of charge;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>vii) Bid Security amount;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>viii) Name of client;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ix) Name of Project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The purpose of the Letter of Invitation to Bid is to provide such information as is necessary to enable potential bidders to judge for themselves whether they should pursue the matter any further.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fee for bidding documents should be only to cover the cost of preparing bidding documents. It should also be adequate to prevent frivolous requests for bidding documents. However excessive charges could discourage potential bidders from taking them out and thereby reducing competition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Instructions to bidders</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This section of the bidding documents is intended to explain to intending bidders the nature and scope of the tender and should provide all information that will be of assistance to bidders in preparing their bids.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It would naturally vary in contents and complexity from contract to contract but should ensure that intending bidders are quite clear about the requirements of the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Project Description</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding document should include a general description of the project; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Work to be performed,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Site location and information as to its accessibility and all other relevant local conditions,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>e.g. geophysical or climatic conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Qualifications of Bidders</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The qualifications and experience of bidders considered necessary and acceptable to the client should be appropriately spelled out.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Normally, this takes the form of requiring the bidder to submit satisfactory evidence of having, in the last five years, undertaken a number of similar projects of the same or larger size, completed successfully.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Submission of Bids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The closing date, time, and place where sealed bids are to be delivered should be clearly stated. The time allowed for the submission of bids should be adequate so that competition is not impaired.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Extension of Bidding Periods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidding documents should expressly reserve the right of the client, at its discretion, to extend the bid closing date. The deadline for submitting bids should, however, only be extended where such an extension will result in greater competition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Period of Bid Validity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The period of bid validity depends upon the complexity of the procurement. The client shall ensure that the period so specified is sufficient to enable the completion of the evaluation of bids, obtain all requisite approvals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Lengthy periods of bid validity are discouraged as they could result in bidders quoting higher prices than necessary as a hedge against inflation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Criteria for Bid Evaluation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Apart from price, other factors other than price that will affect the award should be kept to a minimum.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The invitation should identify those factors which, in addition to price, will be given consideration in the evaluation of bids and should explain how these factors will influence the bid evaluation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Rejection of Bids</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A statement indicating the client\'s right to reject any or all bids is normally included in the bidding document. 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(2045, 1, '2024-06-12 23:37:43', '2024-06-12 18:07:43', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Excavation means to loosen and take out materials, leaving space above or below ground. In civil engineering, earthwork includes backfilling with new or original materials to voids, spreading, and leveling over an area.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The content of the excavation proposal should include the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Detail of method for ground protection treatment and dewatering.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Survey of existing site condition</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.1 accurate level survey</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.2 geotechnical survey</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.3 ground and surface water information</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2.4 record/report of the surrounding facilities and structures</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Detail design or construction proposal regarding:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.1 site/soil investigation report and geotechnical assumptions</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.2 detail of excavation/protection works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.3 sequence and method of works</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3.4 monitoring proposal</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>EXCAVATION</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Excavation in most situations is done by mechanical means. However, the exact method to be adopted still depends upon several factors:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Nature of subsoil – affects the type of machine used and the necessity of soil protection.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Size of excavation – affects the type of machine used and excavation method.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Scale of work – a large volume of excavation may involve complicated phasing arrangement and work planning</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Ground water condition – affects the degree of protection (watertight sheet piling or dewatering may be required.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Surrounding condition – impose certain restrictions and precautions (e.g. diversion of a drain, or underpinning work to the nearby building foundation)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Deep excavation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Deep excavation, unlike a shallow one, often requires protecting the sides of the cut using suitable support. Besides, the problem of groundwater cannot be avoided. There are methods to overcome this, such as:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>1. Dumpling method</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is used where there are buildings or streets in the proximity. The method is to construct a series of retaining walls in a trench, section by section, around the site perimeter, leaving a center called a \"dumpling\".</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When the perimeter walls are in place, excavation may start at the center of the dumpling, until exposing a section of the wall. Then the wall may be side supported by struts, shoring, soil anchors, etc., again section by section in short lengths, until the excavation is all completed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2038,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2038\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Excavation and Construction of Shallow Basement using Dumpling Method</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method does not require much heavy mechanical equipment and thus cost of work is relatively lower. It can excavate up to a maximum depth of about 3m. Sometimes in very poor soil or waterlogged ground, interlocking steel sheet piles may be driven to confine the area to be excavated. After that excavation can be done in sections and properly supported similar to that mentioned above. By the use of sheet piles, excavation may reach a maximum of about 15m. However, the cost of work will be increased.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. <strong>Diaphragm walling</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2039,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2039\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Construction sequence of Diaphragm Wall</strong><strong></strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method needs to construct a Reinforced Concrete retaining wall along the area of work. Because the wall is designed to reach a very great depth, a mechanical excavating method is employed. A typical sequence of work includes:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Construct a guide wall &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Excavation for the diaphragm wall</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Excavation support using Bentonite slurry &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Insert reinforcement and concreting</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Construct a guide wall</strong> – A guide wall is two parallel concrete beams running as a guide to the clamshell which is used for the excavation of the diaphragm wall.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Excavation for the diaphragm wall</strong> – In normal soil conditions excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended by cables to a crane. The grab can easily chisel boulders in soil due to its weight.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Excavation support</strong> – excavation for the diaphragm wall produces a vertical strip in soil which can collapse easily. Bentonite slurry is used to protect the sides of the soil. Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay which, when added to water, forms an impervious cake-like slurry with large viscosity. The slurry will produce a great lateral pressure sufficient enough to retain the vertical soil.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Reinforcement </strong>– reinforcements are inserted in the form of a steel cage, but may require to lap and extend to the required length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Concreting </strong>– concreting is done using Tremie. As Concrete is being poured down, Bentonite will be displaced due to its density being lower than concrete. Bentonite is then collected and reused. Usually, compaction for concrete is not required for the weight of the Bentonite will drive most of the air voids in concrete.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Joining design for the diaphragm wall – Diaphragm walling cannot be constructed continually for a very long section due to tremendous soil pressure. The wall is usually constructed in alternative sections. Two stop-end tubes will be placed at the ends of the excavated trench before concreting. The tubes are withdrawn at the same time as concreting so that a semi-circular end section is formed. Wall sections of this type are built alternatively leaving an intermediate section in between. The interior sections are built similarly but without the end tube. At the end, a continual diaphragm wall is constructed with the sections tightly joined by the semi-circular groove.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Using cofferdams</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2040,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2040\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Making use of sheet pile to form a cofferdam to support excavation</strong><strong></strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary box structure constructed in earth or water to exclude soil or water from a construction area, such as for foundation or basement works.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Use of cofferdam suitable for excavation of larger scale can be of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) <strong>Sheet pile cofferdam</strong> – Also known as single skin cofferdam. Interlocking type steel sheet pile is used and can be used for excavation up to 15m. Sheet pile in this case acts as a cantilever member to support the soil therefore adequate depth of pile or suitable toe treatment may be required. In addition, cofferdams need to be braced and strutted or anchored using tie rods or ground anchors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) <strong>Double-skin cofferdam</strong> – This works similarly to the sheet pile to form a diaphragm. However, the diaphragm is double-skinned using two parallel rows of sheet piles with a filling material placed in the void between. This creates somewhat a gravity-retaining structure and increases the ability to counteract the soil behind. However, more working space is required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sheet Steel Piling</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steel, amongst other materials such as timber, is most effective to be used as a sheet pile due to its high tensile as well as its interlocking ability. It can be used as timbering to excavation in soft and/or waterlogged soils, especially in a congested site where there is not enough space for complicated shoring.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steel sheet piles can be of numerous shapes, thicknesses, and sizes. Most of them can be water-tight and for some heavy sections, they can be driven down to 15m depth. To erect and install a series of sheet piles and keep them vertical in all directions a guide frame may be required. The piles are lifted by a crane, using the lifting holes near the top of each pile, and positioning them between the guide walling of the guide. A Powered hammer (fitted with a grip to the pile) which is hung by the crane is usually used to drive the pile. Sometimes hydraulic hammers can be used to reduce noise.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is a tendency for the piles to lean in a direction during driving. Special control is therefore required to monitor the pile is vertical all the way through.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Ground anchor</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2041,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2041\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A Ground anchor is a pre-stressing tendon embedded and anchored into soil or rock to provide resistance to structural movements by a “tying back\" principle.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Common applications are:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. General slope stabilization</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Tying back/stabilizing a retaining structure</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Tying back/stabilizing for diaphragm walls, but for a temporary nature during excavation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Tying back the entire building from possible uplifting</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ground anchors can be classified into:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Rock anchor – for anchorage in rock</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Injection anchor – suitable for most cohesive and non-cohesive soils</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Method to form a ground anchor</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A hole is predrilled on soil or rock in a position carefully calculated. For rock anchors, an anchor bar with expanded sleeves at the end is inserted into the hole. A dense, high-strength grout is injected over a required length to develop sufficient resistance to hold the bar when it is stressed. Stressing is by hydraulic means and when the stress is developed, the head of the bar is held by an end plate and nut.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For injection anchors, a hole should be bored usually with an expanded end to increase anchorage ability. The pre-stressing bar is placed into the borehole and pressure grouted over the anchorage length.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It should be noted that certain protection measure against corrosion or rusting is required for the stressing bar. Usually, the bar may be coated with bitumen, wrapped by greased tape, or filled with non-pressurized grout after stressing is completed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2042,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2042\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The tendon (steel rod) for tying the anchor before inserting it into the borehole</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2043,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2043\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":5} -->\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Applying tension to stress the tendon to form the final anchor</strong></h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->', 'EXCAVATION in BUILDING CONSTRUCTION', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2037-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-12 23:37:43', '2024-06-12 18:07:43', '', 2037, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2045', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1928, 1, '2023-05-14 12:36:28', '2023-05-14 07:06:28', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definition of a Contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term contract can be defined as an agreement that is enforceable by law.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Works contracts are different from other contracts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Some of the special features of civil engineering works are:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. One-off projects – never the same, e.g. location, time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Labour is transient and recruited on an ad-hoc basis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Management team is freshly set up.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Dispersed in big geographical areas.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. A tangible product results at the end of the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. It takes a longer period to complete the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. It is performed in the open with exposure to the weather.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. People with many specialties participate in its performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. Payment is done in many stages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The conditions of contract for works contracts should address the peculiarities like the above ones.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The main parts of a works contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract Agreement</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Letter of Acceptance</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Memorandum of Understanding (if any)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Form of Bid</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contract Data / Conditions of Particular Applications</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conditions of Contract</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Specifications</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Drawings</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Bill of Quantities</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Conditions of Contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These are a set of rules, agreed by the parties to the contract which govern their conduct.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These conditions:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Define the relationship between the employer and the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>State explicitly what to do if the relationship is disturbed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Define the apportionment of risk between the parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Define the rules under which one party is remunerated for the work done by it.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To prepare a set of conditions of contract one should think of all probable risks which can affect the execution of the works and write clauses to address them by apportioning these risks. It is a time-consuming exercise and many risks may be missed or they may be apportioned erroneously. The remedies suggested for these risks may not be commensurate with the level of risks. To overcome these difficulties, standard conditions of contracts are available. They contain the experience of many individuals who have participated in contract management.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>While apportioning risks in works contract two principles are adhered to, namely;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Responsibility for risk is given to the party which can best manage that risk.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>All other risks are given to the client since he is the initiator of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Standard Conditions of Contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are many standard forms of contracts to tackle the performance of work contracts such as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>FIDIC</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>CIDA / ICTAD</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>NEC</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ICE</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the acquisition of experience, the standard conditions of contracts have seen many revisions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is possible to disturb the balance found in the standard conditions of contract, by tinkering with them. But it is advisable not to disturb the balance in them, since this can result in the following:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Higher bid prices</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Disruption of the project implementation</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Non-participation in the bidding process by genuinely serious contractors</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Award of contract to a bidder who has not understood his responsibilities properly</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Poor quality of work</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Delayed completion</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Unsatisfactory relationship between the Client and the Contractor</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. Frivolous claim by the Contractor</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. Frequent disputes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>10. Termination of the Contract by non-performance</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Since most of the works contracts performed in Sri Lanka are based on the CIDA / ICTAD conditions of the contract, we will look into them more deeply:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are four versions of Standard Conditions of Contract available under CIDA / ICTAD. They are for;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Major Works – Large scale contracts - recommended for contracts over LKR 100 million.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Works for Medium scale contracts - recommended for contracts between LKR 10 million to 100 million.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Works for Minor contracts – recommended for contracts up to LKR 10 million.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Design and Build Contracts – where the contractor is responsible for the design and construction of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>We will look into the Conditions of Contract for Major Works only. (CIDA / ICTAD - SBD2).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Some important features of the ICTAD/SBD2 Standard Conditions of Contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. It caters to the scenario where the bulk of the design is done by the Employer or a consultant appointed by the Employer. In both cases, the Employer is responsible for the design. The Contractor also can be given a small portion of the design for which the Contractor takes responsibility. All the</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Temporary Works are designed by the Contractor and he takes responsibility for them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Presence of an entity that is not a party to the Contract, but who has wide powers in the day-to-day running of the Contract is recognized in the Conditions of Contract. In a works contract the contract is between two parties, namely the Employer and the Contractor. But the conditions of contract for work contracts extensively talk of the responsibilities of three persons. In addition to the parties to the contract, the conditions of the contract talk a lot about a person called the Engineer. This Engineer is there to supervise the work and certify the payment statements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Even though the Engineer is employed by the Employer, the Engineer is expected to be fair and reasonable in his dealings with the parties to the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. This has two parts, namely General Conditions of Contract and Contract Data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The General Conditions of the Contract contain general clauses. The Contract Data has project-specific data. The user is not expected to change anything in the General Conditions of Contract. Whatever he wants to change he can change in the Contract Data. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The risk allocation between the parties is well-balanced. The risks which can be best managed by the Contractor are made his responsibility and all the other risks are given to the Employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Applicable Law</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Applicable Law will determine to what extent the Parties are bound to carry out their contractual obligations. In Sri Lanka, the applicable law is always the Sri Lankan law.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Liquidated Damages</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is expected to complete the works before the Time for Completion. If he delays the work the Employer is entitled to recover his damages by way of Liquidated Damages from the Contractor. The damage per day is predetermined and stated in the Contract Data. A maximum limit for the cumulative Liquidated Damages is also stated in the Contract Data. Even when the maximum Liquidated Damages are imposed on the Contractor, he is expected to fulfill his obligations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The estimate of the damage shall be a genuine estimate at the time of forming the Contract. The Employer cannot get undue benefit by fixing the daily rate of this damage very high. If he does so, he may lose his right to impose the Liquidated Damages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Liquidated Damages can be imposed in most breaches of contract. But in ICTAD/SBD/02 it is imposed on delayed completion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Contractors prevent the imposition of Liquidated Damages by requesting an extension of Time for Completion, whenever an opportunity presents itself.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Extension of Time for Completion</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variations, exceptionally adverse weather conditions, unforeseeable shortages of goods and personnel, and delays attributable to the Employer are some of the reasons which give an entitlement to the Contractor for the extension of Time for Completion. The Contractor should claim for an extension of Time for Completion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Granting of extension of Time for Completion may sometimes result in the payment of prolongation costs to the Contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Refusing to grant an extension of Time for Completion may result in the arbitrator/court deciding that the Employer cannot impose the Liquidated Damages.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definitions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Under this Clause, the contractual terms are defined.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unless the key contractual terms are properly defined, the tendency for disputes increases. Each party will try to interpret the meaning of words to its advantage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cost is defined as the expenditure incurred by the Contractor and includes overheads but excludes profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Contractor incurs additional expenditure by the failure of the Employer to give access to the Site, he can get the extra cost and reasonable profit. But if he incurs additional expenditure due to the presence of some unforeseeable physical condition he is entitled only to additional cost.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The defined words are generally distinguished by having their first letter written in upper case letters. Therefore if the same word is used with the first letter in upper case in some places and lower case in some other places, the difference is that the first case is that of a defined word and the other one is an undefined word. The words contractor / Contractor and cost / Cost are words with different meanings depending on the case of their first letter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is appointed by the Employer and his authority is specified in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer\'s authority can be curtailed by suitable adjustments in the Contract Data. The Contractor can assume that all the authorizations have been obtained by the Engineer. Examples of curtailment are the Engineer is not allowed to give variation orders above a certain amount. Each variation order is given a limit and above a cumulative limit he is not allowed to give any variation. In each case, he is expected to get the Employer\'s permission before giving a variation order.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Approves</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Checks</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Certifies</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Consents</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Examines</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Inspects</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instructs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Notices</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proposes</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Requests</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tests</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Engage in similar acts if needed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sub-Clause 3.5 says that the Engineer shall exercise his discretion impartially.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Variation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Only the simplest of works is completed as planned in the beginning. Changes have to be made to the original plans. The changes can be due to natural reasons, due to a change of mind of the Employer or the Contractor proposes it. When changes are ordered, it has to be addressed contractually without both parties being affected unreasonably.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer can initiate a Variation at any time before issuing a Taking over Certificate. He cannot issue any Variation Order during the Defects Notification Period. He can issue either a Variation Order directly or request a proposal from the Contractor for an intended variation order. The proposals are requested to assess the cost and time implications. The Contractor has the right to inform the Engineer that the Goods required to carry out the Variation Order are not readily available.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A Variation may include:-</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Changes in quantities</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Change in quality or other characteristics</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Change in levels, positions, and dimensions</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Omission of some items (such items cannot be executed by anybody else other than the Contractor subsequently)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Additional work</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Change in the sequence of the work</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the Contractor proposes any change the benefit of that change is divided between the Contractor and the Employer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Any activity which has an element of interaction between human beings has a possibility of disputes. Contracting is no different. Therefore there shall be some safety mechanism in the conditions of contract to foresee disputes and a clearly defined method of resolving them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A two-stage dispute resolution method is given.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The first stage is the adjudication and the next stage is arbitration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Conditions of Contract - in Works Contracts', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1926-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:36:28', '2023-05-14 07:06:28', '', 1926, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1928', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2030, 1, '2024-06-11 02:40:57', '2024-06-10 21:10:57', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Choosing the \"best\" software for civil engineering largely depends on the specific needs of your projects, your budget, and your familiarity with the tool. Here\'s a brief guide on the relative strengths of each software, considering their pros and cons:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For General Civil Engineering Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/civil-3d/overview?term=1-YEAR&amp;tab=subscription\">AutoCAD Civil 3D</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> General civil engineering projects including road design, land development, and transportation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> BIM integration, comprehensive toolset, interoperability with other Autodesk products, large user community.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, steep learning curve, requires powerful hardware.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Ideal if you are working on multidisciplinary infrastructure projects and have the budget and time for training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Structural Analysis and Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>STAAD.Pro and SAP2000</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://staad.pro/\">STAAD.Pro</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Comprehensive structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Versatility, supports various standards, detailed analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> Less intuitive interface, high cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000\">SAP2000</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Flexible and user-friendly structural analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> User-friendly interface, advanced capabilities, suitable for complex structures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Use STAAD.Pro if international standards and comprehensive functionalities are critical. SAP2000 is recommended for user-friendly and flexible structural analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Building Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>ETABS and Revit</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/etabs\">ETABS</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Building structures, especially multi-story buildings.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Tailored for buildings, excellent 3D modeling, integrated design approach.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, learning curve.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/architecture\">Revit</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Integrated design across architecture, structure, and MEP.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> BIM-focused, strong visualization, multidisciplinary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, performance issues with large models, steep learning curve.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> ETABS is excellent for specialized building design and structural analysis. Revit is superior for projects needing integrated design across multiple disciplines.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Project Management</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Primavera P6 and MS Project</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.oracle.com/construction-engineering/primavera-p6/\">Primavera P6</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Robust scheduling, resource management, detailed reporting.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, complexity.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/project-management-software\">MS Project</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Projects that require integration with Microsoft Office tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> User-friendly, integrates well with Microsoft products, good resource management.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> Licensing cost, limited advanced features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Primavera P6 is best for complex, large-scale engineering projects. MS Project is suitable for smaller to medium projects and teams already using Microsoft Office.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Specialized Geotechnical Analysis</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.bentley.com/software/plaxis-3d/\">PLAXIS</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Specialized geotechnical analysis tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Advanced geotechnical calculations, user-friendly interface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, limited to geotechnical engineering.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Use PLAXIS if your primary focus is on geotechnical engineering projects requiring specialized analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Computational Analysis and Simulation</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html\">MATLAB</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Computational tasks, simulation, and numerical analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Versatile, powerful, extensible.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, requires programming knowledge, not specifically for civil engineering.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> MATLAB is best for simulations and numerical analysis, especially if computational tasks are a significant part of your work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>General Civil Engineering:</strong> AutoCAD Civil 3D</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Structural Analysis:</strong> Choose STAAD.Pro for comprehensive needs and SAP2000 for more user-friendly handling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Building Design:</strong> ETABS and Revit are both excellent but serve different comprehensive needs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Project Management:</strong> Primavera P6 for complex projects and MS Project for Microsoft-integrated environments.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Geotechnical Analysis:</strong> PLAXIS</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Computational Analysis:</strong> MATLAB</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The best software ultimately depends on your specific requirements, budget, and the aspects of civil engineering you focus on. Balancing these considerations will help you select the most appropriate tool for your needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Best Software for Civil Engineering', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'best-software-for-civil-engineering', '', '', '2024-06-11 02:40:58', '2024-06-10 21:10:58', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2030', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2032, 1, '2024-06-11 02:40:57', '2024-06-10 21:10:57', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Choosing the \"best\" software for civil engineering largely depends on the specific needs of your projects, your budget, and your familiarity with the tool. Here\'s a brief guide on the relative strengths of each software, considering their pros and cons:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For General Civil Engineering Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/civil-3d/overview?term=1-YEAR&amp;tab=subscription\">AutoCAD Civil 3D</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> General civil engineering projects including road design, land development, and transportation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> BIM integration, comprehensive toolset, interoperability with other Autodesk products, large user community.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, steep learning curve, requires powerful hardware.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Ideal if you are working on multidisciplinary infrastructure projects and have the budget and time for training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Structural Analysis and Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>STAAD.Pro and SAP2000</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://staad.pro/\">STAAD.Pro</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Comprehensive structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Versatility, supports various standards, detailed analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> Less intuitive interface, high cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000\">SAP2000</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Flexible and user-friendly structural analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> User-friendly interface, advanced capabilities, suitable for complex structures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Use STAAD.Pro if international standards and comprehensive functionalities are critical. SAP2000 is recommended for user-friendly and flexible structural analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Building Design</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>ETABS and Revit</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/etabs\">ETABS</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Building structures, especially multi-story buildings.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Tailored for buildings, excellent 3D modeling, integrated design approach.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, learning curve.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/architecture\">Revit</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Integrated design across architecture, structure, and MEP.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> BIM-focused, strong visualization, multidisciplinary.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, performance issues with large models, steep learning curve.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> ETABS is excellent for specialized building design and structural analysis. Revit is superior for projects needing integrated design across multiple disciplines.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Project Management</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Primavera P6 and MS Project</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.oracle.com/construction-engineering/primavera-p6/\">Primavera P6</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Robust scheduling, resource management, detailed reporting.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, complexity.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/project-management-software\">MS Project</a></strong><!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Projects that require integration with Microsoft Office tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> User-friendly, integrates well with Microsoft products, good resource management.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> Licensing cost, limited advanced features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Primavera P6 is best for complex, large-scale engineering projects. MS Project is suitable for smaller to medium projects and teams already using Microsoft Office.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Specialized Geotechnical Analysis</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.bentley.com/software/plaxis-3d/\">PLAXIS</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Specialized geotechnical analysis tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Advanced geotechnical calculations, user-friendly interface.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, limited to geotechnical engineering.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> Use PLAXIS if your primary focus is on geotechnical engineering projects requiring specialized analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For Computational Analysis and Simulation</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><a href=\"https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html\">MATLAB</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Best For:</strong> Computational tasks, simulation, and numerical analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Pros:</strong> Versatile, powerful, extensible.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cons:</strong> High cost, requires programming knowledge, not specifically for civil engineering.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Recommendation:</strong> MATLAB is best for simulations and numerical analysis, especially if computational tasks are a significant part of your work.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>General Civil Engineering:</strong> AutoCAD Civil 3D</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Structural Analysis:</strong> Choose STAAD.Pro for comprehensive needs and SAP2000 for more user-friendly handling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Building Design:</strong> ETABS and Revit are both excellent but serve different comprehensive needs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Project Management:</strong> Primavera P6 for complex projects and MS Project for Microsoft-integrated environments.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Geotechnical Analysis:</strong> PLAXIS</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Computational Analysis:</strong> MATLAB</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The best software ultimately depends on your specific requirements, budget, and the aspects of civil engineering you focus on. Balancing these considerations will help you select the most appropriate tool for your needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Best Software for Civil Engineering', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2030-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-11 02:40:57', '2024-06-10 21:10:57', '', 2030, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2032', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(2029, 1, '2024-06-11 02:24:12', '2024-06-10 20:54:12', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineering is a dynamic field that integrates the principles of engineering with the latest technological advancements to design, construct, and maintain essential infrastructure. To meet the demanding requirements of the profession, civil engineers rely heavily on specialized software tools. These programs not only improve productivity but also enhance accuracy, efficiency, and collaboration across projects. Below, we explore some of the most important software tools that civil engineers use today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/civil-3d/overview?term=1-YEAR&amp;tab=subscription\">AutoCAD Civil 3D</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>AutoCAD Civil 3D is one of the most widely used software for civil engineering design and documentation. It supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows and helps civil engineers plan, design, and manage civil infrastructure projects. Its features include 3D modeling, dynamic design, and drafting tools that are integral for road design, land development, and transportation projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Integration:</strong> Supports Building Information Modeling (BIM), facilitating the efficient design and documentation of infrastructure projects.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Comprehensive Toolset:</strong> Offers extensive tools for surveying, designing, and visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interoperability:</strong> High compatibility with other Autodesk products, enhancing workflow efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Large user base and abundant resources for support and learning.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for small firms or individual users.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve for beginners, requiring significant training and practice.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires a powerful computer configuration to run smoothly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. <strong><a href=\"https://staad.pro/\">STAAD.Pro</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>STAAD.Pro is a popular structural analysis and design software used by civil engineers to perform 3D model generation, linear static analysis, and advanced dynamic analysis. It supports the design of structures like buildings, bridges, and towers by providing a comprehensive range of analysis tools that conform to various international standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Supports various structural analysis tasks and works with different international standards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Detailed Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex analysis including dynamic, seismic, and nonlinear analyses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Bentley Systems software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Can be less intuitive and dated compared to newer software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires significant time to master all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000\">SAP2000</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SAP2000 is another powerful tool for structural analysis and design. Known for its simplicity and versatility, SAP2000 is employed for designing and analyzing any type of structural system, including buildings, bridges, and special structures. Its user-friendly interface and robust analytical capabilities make it a favorite among professionals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User-friendly:</strong> Intuitive interface and easy-to-use functionalities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Capabilities:</strong> Excellent for complex structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Suitable for a wide range of structures, from simple to complex.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Price:</strong> High cost, which might be prohibitive for smaller practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive and might require high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/etabs\">ETABS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ETABS (Extended 3D Analysis of Building Systems) is specialized for building structures. It offers an intuitive and sophisticated interface coupled with advanced design features. ETABS is ideal for multi-story building analysis and design, incorporating everything from the simplest 2D frames to the most complex 3D models.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Tailored specifically for building structures, offering specialized tools and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>3D Modeling:</strong> Offers comprehensive 3D modeling and visualization capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integrated Design:</strong> Supports an integrated approach for architectural, structural, and MEP design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for smaller firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Steep Learning Curve:</strong> Requires time and training to fully utilize all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/architecture\">Revit</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Revit is a powerful BIM software by Autodesk used for creating detailed 3D models of buildings and infrastructure. Revit allows for the integrated design and collaboration of architectural, structural, and MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) elements, providing a comprehensive solution for multidisciplinary teams working on a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Focused:</strong> Excellent BIM capabilities, facilitating integrated design and collaboration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Multidisciplinary:</strong> Supports architectural, structural, and MEP design within a single platform.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Visualization:</strong> Strong visualization tools for design presentation and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High initial and subscription costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Performance:</strong> Can be slow with very large models, requiring high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve and requires significant training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. <strong><a href=\"https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html\">MATLAB</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing and is particularly useful in civil engineering for tasks that involve matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementing algorithms, and creating user interfaces. It is especially beneficial for computational mechanics, simulation, and modeling tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatile:</strong> Excellent for computational tasks, simulations, and modeling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Powerful:</strong> Highly capable for complex numerical analysis and data visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Extensible:</strong> Wide range of toolboxes for various applications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Expensive licensing, especially with additional toolboxes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires understanding of programming and mathematical concepts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Not specifically geared towards civil engineering, may require customization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. <strong><a href=\"https://www.oracle.com/construction-engineering/primavera-p6/\">Primavera P6</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Primavera P6 is a project management software that is commonly used in civil engineering for planning, managing, and executing large scale projects. It assists in scheduling, resource allocation, and project tracking, helping to ensure that projects are delivered on time and within budget.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Robust Scheduling:</strong> Excellent for large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Powerful resource management features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reporting:</strong> Provides detailed reporting and analytics.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High cost for licensing.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Can be complex to set up and use effectively.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Might require additional tools for full integration with other software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. <strong><a href=\"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/project-management-software\">MS Project</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Microsoft Project is another effective project management tool used in the civil engineering domain. It helps teams to plan projects, assign tasks, track progress, manage budgets, and analyze workloads. Its integration with other Microsoft Office tools adds to its versatility and usability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Ease of Use:</strong> User-friendly interface familiar to those who use other Microsoft Office products.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Microsoft products like Excel, Outlook, and SharePoint.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Offers robust features for resource allocation and tracking.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive, especially for large teams.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Features:</strong> May lack some advanced features found in more specialized project management tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Customization:</strong> Limited customization options compared to some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9. <strong><a href=\"https://www.civildesigner.com/\">Civil Designer</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil Designer is an all-in-one civil engineering software suite that supports infrastructure design and documentation needs. It covers a range of services from roads, stormwater drainage, and water supply networks, to sewer design – making it an indispensable tool for municipal engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>All-in-One:</strong> Comprehensive suite covering multiple aspects of civil engineering design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specific Focus:</strong> Tailored towards civil designers, incorporating tools specifically for roads, stormwater, and sewer design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Good support and learning resources available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Can be challenging to learn and master, especially for beginners.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interface:</strong> May not be as modern or intuitive as some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing costs can be high.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">10. <strong><a href=\"https://www.bentley.com/software/plaxis-3d/\">PLAXIS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>PLAXIS is a finite element geotechnical engineering software for analyzing the deformation and stability in soil and rock engineering projects. It is particularly advantageous for tasks involving excavations, embankments, and tunneling, providing powerful analysis tools and user-friendly interfaces for engineers specialized in geotechnical work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Designed specifically for geotechnical analysis, making it highly specialized.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex geotechnical calculations and simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Relatively user-friendly for its advanced capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High licensing costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialized Use:</strong> Mainly for geotechnical engineering, so it may not be useful for more general civil engineering tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires powerful computer hardware to perform advanced simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the ever-evolving field of civil engineering, staying proficient with the latest software is essential. These tools not only streamline tasks but also foster collaboration, improve precision, and ultimately contribute to the success of engineering projects. As the field continues to advance, new software and updates to existing tools will undoubtedly continue to reshape the way civil engineers work, enabling them to meet the complex challenges of tomorrow\'s infrastructure needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Essential Software for Civil Engineers in 2024', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2023-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-11 02:24:12', '2024-06-10 20:54:12', '', 2023, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2029', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1931, 1, '2023-05-14 12:57:34', '2023-05-14 07:27:34', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Value for money is an audit examination designed to determine whether the organization in question is performing economically, efficiently, and effectively in its use of resources, operating procedures, and in pursuit of objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the private sector, the economy, effectiveness, and efficiency of their services or products are reflected in the Balance Sheet and in Profit and Loss Account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Economy, Efficiency &amp; Effectiveness</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Economy </strong>– The economy is minimizing the cost of resources acquired or used in an activity having regard to the appropriate quality. (i.e. spending less).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Efficiency</strong> - Efficiency is the relationship between the output, in terms of goods, services, or other results used to produce them. (i.e. spending well).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Effectiveness</strong> - Effectiveness is the extent to which objectives are achieved and the relationship between the intended impact and the actual impact of an activity. (i.e. spending wisely).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The economy of procurement is achieved by procuring required items in the right quantity, delivered to the right place at the right time and at right cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Value For Money audit?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Value for money audit is an examination that provides an objective and constructive assessment of the financial, human, and physical resources that are managed with due regard to economy, efficiency, and effectiveness, and accountability relationships are served.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Difference between financial and VFM audit</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Financial audits</strong>:</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Focus on the attest function.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Are almost always limited to financial matters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Are nearly always performed in the same manner using universally recognized standard auditing techniques.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Result in reports limited to disclosures and opinions with financially related matters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>VFM audits:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally deals with economy, efficiency, and effectiveness (not necessarily all three at once).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Focus attention on the task, activity, function, or area of organized activity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Performed using audit techniques and other procedures tailored to the activity being reviewed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Reports always include recommendations for improved performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How useful VFM audit is</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit takes a macro view of things. It concentrates on systems and procedures and not on individual transactions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit helps to generate appropriate information on management accountability. It provides a mechanism for the legislature to assess the value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit helps the management in improving effectiveness in the future. It highlights the areas that need action. It guides management towards better performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit avoids the audit of policies. It does not question the rationale of executive policies. However, it does tell where these policies have not been able to attain the intended results.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Procurement in supplies should ensure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Quantity</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Quality</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right time</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Price</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Procurements in construction should ensure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Minimum cost</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Maximum Economic advantage</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Required Standard</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Successful completion</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'VALUE FOR MONEY IN PROCUREMENT', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'value-for-money-in-procurement', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:57:35', '2023-05-14 07:27:35', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1931', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1933, 1, '2023-05-14 12:57:34', '2023-05-14 07:27:34', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Value for money is an audit examination designed to determine whether the organization in question is performing economically, efficiently, and effectively in its use of resources, operating procedures, and in pursuit of objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the private sector, the economy, effectiveness, and efficiency of their services or products are reflected in the Balance Sheet and in Profit and Loss Account.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Economy, Efficiency &amp; Effectiveness</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Economy </strong>– The economy is minimizing the cost of resources acquired or used in an activity having regard to the appropriate quality. (i.e. spending less).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Efficiency</strong> - Efficiency is the relationship between the output, in terms of goods, services, or other results used to produce them. (i.e. spending well).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Effectiveness</strong> - Effectiveness is the extent to which objectives are achieved and the relationship between the intended impact and the actual impact of an activity. (i.e. spending wisely).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The economy of procurement is achieved by procuring required items in the right quantity, delivered to the right place at the right time and at right cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Value For Money audit?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Value for money audit is an examination that provides an objective and constructive assessment of the financial, human, and physical resources that are managed with due regard to economy, efficiency, and effectiveness, and accountability relationships are served.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Difference between financial and VFM audit</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Financial audits</strong>:</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Focus on the attest function.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Are almost always limited to financial matters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Are nearly always performed in the same manner using universally recognized standard auditing techniques.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Result in reports limited to disclosures and opinions with financially related matters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>VFM audits:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally deals with economy, efficiency, and effectiveness (not necessarily all three at once).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Focus attention on the task, activity, function, or area of organized activity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Performed using audit techniques and other procedures tailored to the activity being reviewed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Reports always include recommendations for improved performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How useful VFM audit is</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit takes a macro view of things. It concentrates on systems and procedures and not on individual transactions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit helps to generate appropriate information on management accountability. It provides a mechanism for the legislature to assess the value for money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit helps the management in improving effectiveness in the future. It highlights the areas that need action. It guides management towards better performance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>VFM audit avoids the audit of policies. It does not question the rationale of executive policies. However, it does tell where these policies have not been able to attain the intended results.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Procurement in supplies should ensure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Quantity</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Quality</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right time</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Right Price</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Procurements in construction should ensure</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Minimum cost</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Maximum Economic advantage</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Required Standard</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Successful completion</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'VALUE FOR MONEY IN PROCUREMENT', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1931-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:57:34', '2023-05-14 07:27:34', '', 1931, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1933', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2025, 1, '2024-06-11 01:38:33', '2024-06-10 20:08:33', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineering is a dynamic field that integrates the principles of engineering with the latest technological advancements to design, construct, and maintain essential infrastructure. To meet the demanding requirements of the profession, civil engineers rely heavily on specialized software tools. These programs not only improve productivity but also enhance accuracy, efficiency, and collaboration across projects. Below, we explore some of the most important software tools that civil engineers use today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1.&nbsp;<strong>AutoCAD Civil 3D</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>AutoCAD Civil 3D is one of the most widely used software for civil engineering design and documentation. It supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows and helps civil engineers plan, design, and manage civil infrastructure projects. Its features include 3D modeling, dynamic design, and drafting tools that are integral for road design, land development, and transportation projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Integration:</strong> Supports Building Information Modeling (BIM), facilitating the efficient design and documentation of infrastructure projects.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Comprehensive Toolset:</strong> Offers extensive tools for surveying, designing, and visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interoperability:</strong> High compatibility with other Autodesk products, enhancing workflow efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Large user base and abundant resources for support and learning.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for small firms or individual users.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve for beginners, requiring significant training and practice.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires a powerful computer configuration to run smoothly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. <strong>STAAD.Pro</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>STAAD.Pro is a popular structural analysis and design software used by civil engineers to perform 3D model generation, linear static analysis, and advanced dynamic analysis. It supports the design of structures like buildings, bridges, and towers by providing a comprehensive range of analysis tools that conform to various international standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Supports various structural analysis tasks and works with different international standards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Detailed Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex analysis including dynamic, seismic, and nonlinear analyses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Bentley Systems software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Can be less intuitive and dated compared to newer software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires significant time to master all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.&nbsp;<strong>SAP2000</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SAP2000 is another powerful tool for structural analysis and design. Known for its simplicity and versatility, SAP2000 is employed for designing and analyzing any type of structural system, including buildings, bridges, and special structures. Its user-friendly interface and robust analytical capabilities make it a favorite among professionals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User-friendly:</strong> Intuitive interface and easy-to-use functionalities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Capabilities:</strong> Excellent for complex structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Suitable for a wide range of structures, from simple to complex.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Price:</strong> High cost, which might be prohibitive for smaller practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive and might require high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.&nbsp;<strong>ETABS</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ETABS (Extended 3D Analysis of Building Systems) is specialized for building structures. It offers an intuitive and sophisticated interface coupled with advanced design features. ETABS is ideal for multi-story building analysis and design, incorporating everything from the simplest 2D frames to the most complex 3D models.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Tailored specifically for building structures, offering specialized tools and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>3D Modeling:</strong> Offers comprehensive 3D modeling and visualization capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integrated Design:</strong> Supports an integrated approach for architectural, structural, and MEP design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for smaller firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Steep Learning Curve:</strong> Requires time and training to fully utilize all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.&nbsp;<strong>Revit</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Revit is a powerful BIM software by Autodesk used for creating detailed 3D models of buildings and infrastructure. Revit allows for the integrated design and collaboration of architectural, structural, and MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) elements, providing a comprehensive solution for multidisciplinary teams working on a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Focused:</strong> Excellent BIM capabilities, facilitating integrated design and collaboration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Multidisciplinary:</strong> Supports architectural, structural, and MEP design within a single platform.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Visualization:</strong> Strong visualization tools for design presentation and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High initial and subscription costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Performance:</strong> Can be slow with very large models, requiring high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve and requires significant training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.&nbsp;<strong>MATLAB</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing and is particularly useful in civil engineering for tasks that involve matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementing algorithms, and creating user interfaces. It is especially beneficial for computational mechanics, simulation, and modeling tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatile:</strong> Excellent for computational tasks, simulations, and modeling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Powerful:</strong> Highly capable for complex numerical analysis and data visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Extensible:</strong> Wide range of toolboxes for various applications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Expensive licensing, especially with additional toolboxes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires understanding of programming and mathematical concepts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Not specifically geared towards civil engineering, may require customization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.&nbsp;<strong>Primavera P6</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Primavera P6 is a project management software that is commonly used in civil engineering for planning, managing, and executing large scale projects. It assists in scheduling, resource allocation, and project tracking, helping to ensure that projects are delivered on time and within budget.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Robust Scheduling:</strong> Excellent for large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Powerful resource management features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reporting:</strong> Provides detailed reporting and analytics.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High cost for licensing.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Can be complex to set up and use effectively.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Might require additional tools for full integration with other software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8.&nbsp;<strong>MS Project</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Microsoft Project is another effective project management tool used in the civil engineering domain. It helps teams to plan projects, assign tasks, track progress, manage budgets, and analyze workloads. Its integration with other Microsoft Office tools adds to its versatility and usability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. MS Project</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Ease of Use:</strong> User-friendly interface familiar to those who use other Microsoft Office products.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Microsoft products like Excel, Outlook, and SharePoint.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Offers robust features for resource allocation and tracking.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive, especially for large teams.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Features:</strong> May lack some advanced features found in more specialized project management tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Customization:</strong> Limited customization options compared to some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9.&nbsp;<strong>Civil Designer</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil Designer is an all-in-one civil engineering software suite that supports infrastructure design and documentation needs. It covers a range of services from roads, stormwater drainage, and water supply networks, to sewer design – making it an indispensable tool for municipal engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>All-in-One:</strong> Comprehensive suite covering multiple aspects of civil engineering design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specific Focus:</strong> Tailored towards civil designers, incorporating tools specifically for roads, stormwater, and sewer design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Good support and learning resources available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Can be challenging to learn and master, especially for beginners.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interface:</strong> May not be as modern or intuitive as some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing costs can be high.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">10.&nbsp;<strong>PLAXIS</strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>PLAXIS is a finite element geotechnical engineering software for analyzing the deformation and stability in soil and rock engineering projects. It is particularly advantageous for tasks involving excavations, embankments, and tunneling, providing powerful analysis tools and user-friendly interfaces for engineers specialized in geotechnical work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Designed specifically for geotechnical analysis, making it highly specialized.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex geotechnical calculations and simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Relatively user-friendly for its advanced capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High licensing costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialized Use:</strong> Mainly for geotechnical engineering, so it may not be useful for more general civil engineering tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires powerful computer hardware to perform advanced simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the ever-evolving field of civil engineering, staying proficient with the latest software is essential. These tools not only streamline tasks but also foster collaboration, improve precision, and ultimately contribute to the success of engineering projects. As the field continues to advance, new software and updates to existing tools will undoubtedly continue to reshape the way civil engineers work, enabling them to meet the complex challenges of tomorrow\'s infrastructure needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Essential Software for Civil Engineers in 2024', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2023-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-11 01:38:33', '2024-06-10 20:08:33', '', 2023, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2025', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2237, 1, '2024-07-21 23:49:10', '2024-07-21 18:19:10', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2237', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:49:10', '2024-07-21 18:19:10', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2237/', 99, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2239, 1, '2024-07-22 00:43:06', '2024-07-21 19:13:06', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the increasing importance of energy-conscious design and the broader environmental impact of buildings, greater attention is being focused on the appropriate use of thermal and sound insulation materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>THERMAL AND SOUND INSULATION MATERIALS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To consider the relative efficiency of insulating materials, the thermal conductivities (<em>λ</em> W/m K) are quoted at the standard 10°C to allow direct comparisons.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>λ</em><em> - Symbol for thermal conductivity of materials, which was in the past denoted as k-value.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Thermal conductivity (</em></strong><em>λ</em><strong><em>-value) </em></strong><em>is a thermal property of a material, of its ability to conduct heat, measured as the rate of heat flow (W) over unit length (m) through that material over a unit area (m<sup>2</sup>), caused by unit temperature difference K).</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>W.m/m<sup>2</sup>.K, by cancellation: </em><em>W/</em><em>m.K.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The&nbsp;<strong>rate of heat flow</strong>&nbsp;is the amount of&nbsp;</em><a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat\"><em>heat</em></a><em>&nbsp;transferred per unit of time in some material, usually measured in&nbsp;</em><a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt\"><em>watt</em></a>s<em>&nbsp;(</em><a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joules\"><em>joules</em></a><em>&nbsp;per second).&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Metals have high conductivities. Therefore low-conductivity materials are used as thermal insulation.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>U-value </em></strong><em>is the thermal transmittance of a building element, expressed as the rate of heat flow through a unit area for a unit temperature difference between the air on either side of the component.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In considering acoustic control, a distinction is made between the reduction of sound transmitted directly through the building components and the reduction of sound reflected by the surfaces within a particular enclosure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Transmitted sound is considered in terms of both impact and airborne sound.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Impact sound is caused by direct impact onto the building fabric which then vibrates, transmitting the sound through the structure. It is significant in the case of intermediate floors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Airborne sound waves, from the human voice and sound-generating equipment, cause the building fabric to vibrate, thus transmitting the sound.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Airborne sound is critical with separating walls and is increased by leakage at discontinuities within the building fabric, around unsealed openings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The reduction in sound energy passing through a building element is expressed in decibels (dB).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The doubling of the mass of a building component reduces the sound transmission by approximately 5 dB. Therefore, sound-insulating materials are generally heavy structural elements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The absorption of sound at surfaces is connected to the porosity of the material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Generally, light materials with fibrous or open surfaces are good absorbers, reducing ambient noise levels and reverberation times, whereas smooth, hard surfaces are highly reflective of sound.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Forms of insulation materials</strong><strong></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Thermal and sound insulation materials may be categorized according to their appropriate uses in construction, their physical forms, or their material origin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The key forms of materials may be divided into:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>structural insulation materials;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>rigid and semi-rigid sheets and slabs;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>loose fill, blanket materials, and applied finishes;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>aluminum foil;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>vacuum and gas-filled panels.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Insulation materials</strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insulation materials are categorized according to their composition, various forms, uses in construction, and where appropriate, fire protection properties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Materials are divided into <strong>inorganic</strong> and <strong>organic</strong> origin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Non-combustible insulating materials are manufactured from ceramics and inorganic minerals. (Natural rock, glass, calcium silicate, and cement are some of them).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic products are from natural cork or wood fibers. However, materials manufactured by the plastics industry predominate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Organic materials offer higher thermal insulation properties. However, many are either inflammable or decompose within fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cellular plastics include open and closed-cell materials.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The closed-cell products are more rigid and have better thermal insulation properties and moisture resistance. The open-cell materials are more flexible and permeable.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Aluminum foil has thermal insulation properties related to the transmission of radiant rather than conducted heat.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Inorganic insulation materials</strong><strong></strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2242,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-22.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2242\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Foamed concrete - </strong>Foamed concrete with air content in the range of 30 – 80% is a fire and frost-resistant material. Foamed concrete can be easily placed and is suitable for insulating under floors and on flat roofs and can be laid to a fall of up to 1 in 100. (Thermal conductivity ranges from 0.10 W/m K at a density of 400 kg/m<sup>3</sup> to 0.63 W/m K at a density of 1600 kg/m<sup>3</sup>.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Lightweight aggregate concrete – </strong>Lightweight concrete offers a range of insulating and load-bearing properties, starting from 0.10 W/m K at a crushing strength of 2.8 MPa.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Resistance to airborne sound in masonry walls is closely related to the mass of the wall.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Gypsum plaster - </strong>The thermal conductivity of gypsum plaster is typically 0.16 W/m K. Sound transmission through lightweight walls can be reduced by using two layers of gypsum plasterboards with different thicknesses. The addition of an extra layer of plasterboard attached to existing ceilings can reduce sound transmission from upper floors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2243,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-23.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2243\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Wood wool products - </strong>Wood wool products are manufactured from wood fibers and cement. These are both fire and rot-resistant. Wood wool slabs are suitable as a roof decking material, which may be exposed painted or plastered to the exposed lower face.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Wood wool slabs offer good sound absorption properties due to their open textured surface. This is unaffected by the application of sprayed emulsion paint. Acoustic insulation for a pre-screeded 50 mm slab is typically 30 dB. (The thermal conductivity of wood wool is typically 0.077 W/m K.)</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2244,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-24.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Mineral wool - </strong>Mineral wool is manufactured from volcanic rock (silica, with alumina and magnesium oxide), and blended with coke and limestone, fused at 1500°C in a furnace. It is non-combustible, water-repellent, and rots-proof and contains no CFCs or HCFCs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It may be used to reduce transmitted sound. Due to its non-combustible property, it can be used for the manufacture of fire stops to prevent fire spread, giving fire resistance ratings between 30 - 120 minutes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2245,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-25.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2245\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Glass wool - </strong>Glass wool is non-combustible, water-repellent, and rots-proof. It contains no CFCs or HCFCs and is available in a range of products. The thermal conductivity of glass wool products ranges typically between 0.031 - 0.040 W/m K at 10°C. The sound and fire-resistant properties of glass wool are similar to those of mineral wool.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2246,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-26.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2246\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2247,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-27.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2247\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cellular or foamed glass blocks - </strong>Cellular or foamed glass (CG) is manufactured from a mixture of crushed glass and fine carbon powder. The black material is durable, non-combustible, easily worked, and has a high compressive strength. It is water resistant due to its closed-cell structure, impervious to water vapour, and contains no CFCs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cellular glass slabs are suitable for roof insulation, including green roofs and roof-top car parks due to their high compressive strength.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The thermal conductivity of cellular glass is within the range of 0.037–0.055 W/m K at 10°C, depending upon the grade.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2248,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-28.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2248\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2249,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-29.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2249\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Organic insulation materials</strong><strong></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cork products - </strong>Cork is harvested from the cork oak. It is considered as an environmentally friendly material. For conversion into boards, typically used for roof insulation, cork granules are expanded, and formed under heat and pressure into blocks using the natural resin within the cork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The thermal conductivity of the corkboard is typically 0.042 W/m K.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2250,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-30.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2250\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Sheep’s wool - </strong>Sheep’s wool is a very efficient renewable resource insulation material, with a low conductivity that compares favourably to other fibrous insulating materials. Wool is a hygroscopic material. That means, it reversibly absorbs and releases water vapour. This effect is beneficial when it is used for thermal insulation. The thermal conductivity is 0.039 W/m K.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2251,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-31.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2251\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cellulose insulation - </strong>Cellulose insulation is manufactured from shredded recycled paper and other organic waste. It is treated with borax for flammability and smouldering resistance. This also makes it unattractive to vermin, and resistant to insects, fungus, and dry rot.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2253,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-33.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2253\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cellulose is a hygroscopic material. Under conditions of high humidity, it absorbs water vapour and then releases it again under dry conditions. Cellulose is an effective absorber of airborne sound. The thermal conductivity = 0.035 W/m K to 0.040 W/m K in walls.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2254,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-34.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2254\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Flax, hemp, and coconut fiber – </strong>Due to increased demand for sustainable insulating materials, products originating from renewable flax, hemp, and coconut fibers are now available in the industry. Chopped hemp fibers, treated with borax for fire resistance, are used to produce insulation batts, and also as loose fill for floors and roofs. Coconut fiber thermal and acoustic insulation boards have the advantage of natural rot resistance. Typical uses include ceiling floor insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2255,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-35.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2255\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2257,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-36.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2257\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2258,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-37.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2258\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2259,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-38.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2259\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Expanded polystyrene - </strong>Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a combustible material, which, in fire, produces large quantities of noxious black smoke. Expanded polystyrene, a closed-cell product, is unaffected by water, dilute acids, and alkalis but is readily dissolved by most organic solvents. It is rot and vermin-proof.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2260,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-39.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2260\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Polystyrene beads</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2261,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-40.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2261\"/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>Expanded polystyrene boards</strong></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2262,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-41.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2262\"/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>Polyurethane foam</strong></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2263,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-42.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2263\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Recycled plastic insulation</strong><strong></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Aluminum foil - </strong>Aluminium foil is used as an insulation material in conjunction with organic foam or insulating gypsum products. It acts by a combination of two physical effects. First, it reflects heat due to its highly reflecting surface. Second, owing to its low emissivity, the re-radiation of any heat that is absorbed is reduced. Thin aluminum reflective foil insulation can be inserted between studs, joists, or rafters, leaving a 25 mm air gap on either side. In addition to insulation, it acts as an air infiltration and vapor barrier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Multi-layer aluminium foil</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2264,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-43.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2264\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Production of cork</strong><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2265,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-44.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2265\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2266,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-45.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2266\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2267,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-46.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2267\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>External polystyrene insulation</strong><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2268,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-47.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2268\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'INSULATION MATERIALS', 'Discover the importance of insulation materials in energy-conscious building design. Learn about thermal conductivity, sound insulation, and the diverse forms of materials available for optimal efficiency. Explore the world of inorganic and organic insulation options to create sustainable, comfortable, and environmentally friendly spaces.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'insulation-materials', '', '', '2024-07-22 00:44:07', '2024-07-21 19:14:07', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2239', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1937, 1, '2023-05-14 13:08:26', '2023-05-14 07:38:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Economists&nbsp;distinguish between <em>growth,</em> by which they mean more of the same - more goods and services; and <em>development,</em> growth with structural and technological change.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An&nbsp;important&nbsp;feature&nbsp;of the development is seen when goods and services enter into markets. For example, when people have meals away from home and pay for restaurant services, the restaurant sector grows up which enters into what is measured as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>GDP is the total market value of a country\'s output of goods and services that are exchanged for money or traded in a market system over a certain period (usually a year), regardless of who owns the productive assets. GDP measures the value of all economic activity within a country’s borders. For example, the output of Indian-owned companies based in Sri Lanka is considered part of Sri Lanka’s GDP, not that of India.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>GDP is equal to private consumption, plus investment, plus government expenditure, plus some other factors such as changes in stocks, plus exports minus imports. These are known as the components of GDP.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Economic Growth Rate is the rate at which gross domestic product (GDP) is increasing (positive growth) or decreasing (negative growth). If GDP grows at a higher rate than the population, then living standards are said to be rising. If the population is growing at a higher rate than GDP, living standards are said to be falling.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As explained in the above paragraph, government expenditure is a major component of GDP. Also, it is a positive component, which means an increase in government expenditure results in an increase in GDP. That in turn results in an increase in the economic growth of a country, provided that other factors are unchanged.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The government is the largest service provider in the country. So the increase in government expenditure should increase the quality of services that government provides, such as health, transport, utilities, etc. The question is whether this is happening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In theory, if the government spends more than the previous year, it will increase the GDP of the country this year. That means there is positive economic growth in the country. The public should feel that there is economic growth because they get quality service than previously. There should be a reduction in unemployment because the government has created more job opportunities with what they have procured this year. There should be lower prices in commodities, i.e. lower inflation rate with the increase in production. There should be lesser and lesser poor people in the country. But if it is to happen, the government should wisely plan and spent with the aim of ultimate improvement of their services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true some of this government expenditure is used for paying salaries and also used for other similar recurrent expenditures. But the major portion of government expenditure is used for the procurement of works, goods, and services by public institutions. That is almost all capital expenditure, which is used for procurements in government institutions. These can be for low-value items such as pens and paper to new works such as super highways or complex items such as high-tech computer systems. Each year these procurements absorb massive amounts of public funds (approximately 20 % of GDP). And the most important thing is each year the amount is increasing rapidly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To avoid ad-hoc, unplanned procurement and malpractices in procurement to happen, there should be proper planning from the beginning and better control up to the end.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>We should begin from the start. The most important thing is a country should have a vision. That should be a long-term vision, showing the position of the country to be after another 20-25 years. In other words, it is very similar to captaining a ship in the middle of the sea. The captain of the ship should exactly know the next port of call, and using any kind of method he should direct the ship along that way. Otherwise, he can endlessly float in the sea, going here and there, not reaching the target; the most important thing is without sinking.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From this vision, short-term missions should be developed. That should be for a period of at least up to 5 years. With this mission in hand, each ministry or department can develop its mission targeting country objectives. Strategy can be formulated only after the objectives of each ministry or department to be accomplished have been determined. Thus, national objectives are the irreducible elements of national strategy. The objectives and targets of each ministry or department should be well fit into the overall national objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To achieve the targets of each ministry or department, they should acquire resources. The most important is the human resources. Other resources such as buildings, machinery, and other goods should be acquired through procurement.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>So if we know our ultimate targets, we can prepare a strategic plan which includes the targets in quantifiable form and dates on which we should achieve these targets. With that in mind, we have to prepare a resource allocation plan which is needed for fulfilling the above targets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the preparation of the resource allocation plan, we now have a clear idea about what we should have to reach as our final target. With that in mind, now we can prepare a Master Procurement Plan – MPP - and Procurement Time Schedule - PTS. According to the quantities and complexity of items to be procured, we can select a suitable method to be adopted for procurement. But these methods should be transparent and possibly promote domestic industry and employment.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Works, goods, or services procured to fit with MPP will be in the right quantity because in advance we know the exact requirement to be procured. It will be at the right price and time. Because we do not have to unnecessarily do procurement at the last minute to avoid funds going back to the treasury. It will be at the right place because each procurement has to be fitted into the macro level requirement of the country fulfilling the social needs of citizens. There will not be any room for unnecessary procurement which leads to an increase in government expenditure causing an increase in the GDP and then in Economic Growth but without any real outcome. The works, goods, and services procured following proper guidelines in turn help to increase Economic Growth which will have a real feeling to the ordinary citizens.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is another side also about the relationship between procurement and economic growth. With proper procurement in government, the production capacity will be increased, due to new infrastructure facilities so acquired. If a country produces more and more, the possibility for export will be more, and possible imports will be less. This also helps to increase the GDP, and then the economic growth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore public procurement system and process of a country have real implications for the economic growth and development of a country if it is well fitted with the country’s national vision, mission, and objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The implication of the public procurement system to the economic growth and development of a country', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'the-implication-of-the-public-procurement-system-to-the-economic-growth-and-development-of-a-country', '', '', '2023-05-14 13:08:27', '2023-05-14 07:38:27', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1937', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1939, 1, '2023-05-14 13:08:26', '2023-05-14 07:38:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Economists&nbsp;distinguish between <em>growth,</em> by which they mean more of the same - more goods and services; and <em>development,</em> growth with structural and technological change.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An&nbsp;important&nbsp;feature&nbsp;of the development is seen when goods and services enter into markets. For example, when people have meals away from home and pay for restaurant services, the restaurant sector grows up which enters into what is measured as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>GDP is the total market value of a country\'s output of goods and services that are exchanged for money or traded in a market system over a certain period (usually a year), regardless of who owns the productive assets. GDP measures the value of all economic activity within a country’s borders. For example, the output of Indian-owned companies based in Sri Lanka is considered part of Sri Lanka’s GDP, not that of India.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>GDP is equal to private consumption, plus investment, plus government expenditure, plus some other factors such as changes in stocks, plus exports minus imports. These are known as the components of GDP.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Economic Growth Rate is the rate at which gross domestic product (GDP) is increasing (positive growth) or decreasing (negative growth). If GDP grows at a higher rate than the population, then living standards are said to be rising. If the population is growing at a higher rate than GDP, living standards are said to be falling.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As explained in the above paragraph, government expenditure is a major component of GDP. Also, it is a positive component, which means an increase in government expenditure results in an increase in GDP. That in turn results in an increase in the economic growth of a country, provided that other factors are unchanged.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The government is the largest service provider in the country. So the increase in government expenditure should increase the quality of services that government provides, such as health, transport, utilities, etc. The question is whether this is happening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In theory, if the government spends more than the previous year, it will increase the GDP of the country this year. That means there is positive economic growth in the country. The public should feel that there is economic growth because they get quality service than previously. There should be a reduction in unemployment because the government has created more job opportunities with what they have procured this year. There should be lower prices in commodities, i.e. lower inflation rate with the increase in production. There should be lesser and lesser poor people in the country. But if it is to happen, the government should wisely plan and spent with the aim of ultimate improvement of their services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is true some of this government expenditure is used for paying salaries and also used for other similar recurrent expenditures. But the major portion of government expenditure is used for the procurement of works, goods, and services by public institutions. That is almost all capital expenditure, which is used for procurements in government institutions. These can be for low-value items such as pens and paper to new works such as super highways or complex items such as high-tech computer systems. Each year these procurements absorb massive amounts of public funds (approximately 20 % of GDP). And the most important thing is each year the amount is increasing rapidly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To avoid ad-hoc, unplanned procurement and malpractices in procurement to happen, there should be proper planning from the beginning and better control up to the end.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>We should begin from the start. The most important thing is a country should have a vision. That should be a long-term vision, showing the position of the country to be after another 20-25 years. In other words, it is very similar to captaining a ship in the middle of the sea. The captain of the ship should exactly know the next port of call, and using any kind of method he should direct the ship along that way. Otherwise, he can endlessly float in the sea, going here and there, not reaching the target; the most important thing is without sinking.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>From this vision, short-term missions should be developed. That should be for a period of at least up to 5 years. With this mission in hand, each ministry or department can develop its mission targeting country objectives. Strategy can be formulated only after the objectives of each ministry or department to be accomplished have been determined. Thus, national objectives are the irreducible elements of national strategy. The objectives and targets of each ministry or department should be well fit into the overall national objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To achieve the targets of each ministry or department, they should acquire resources. The most important is the human resources. Other resources such as buildings, machinery, and other goods should be acquired through procurement.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>So if we know our ultimate targets, we can prepare a strategic plan which includes the targets in quantifiable form and dates on which we should achieve these targets. With that in mind, we have to prepare a resource allocation plan which is needed for fulfilling the above targets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After the preparation of the resource allocation plan, we now have a clear idea about what we should have to reach as our final target. With that in mind, now we can prepare a Master Procurement Plan – MPP - and Procurement Time Schedule - PTS. According to the quantities and complexity of items to be procured, we can select a suitable method to be adopted for procurement. But these methods should be transparent and possibly promote domestic industry and employment.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Works, goods, or services procured to fit with MPP will be in the right quantity because in advance we know the exact requirement to be procured. It will be at the right price and time. Because we do not have to unnecessarily do procurement at the last minute to avoid funds going back to the treasury. It will be at the right place because each procurement has to be fitted into the macro level requirement of the country fulfilling the social needs of citizens. There will not be any room for unnecessary procurement which leads to an increase in government expenditure causing an increase in the GDP and then in Economic Growth but without any real outcome. The works, goods, and services procured following proper guidelines in turn help to increase Economic Growth which will have a real feeling to the ordinary citizens.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There is another side also about the relationship between procurement and economic growth. With proper procurement in government, the production capacity will be increased, due to new infrastructure facilities so acquired. If a country produces more and more, the possibility for export will be more, and possible imports will be less. This also helps to increase the GDP, and then the economic growth.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore public procurement system and process of a country have real implications for the economic growth and development of a country if it is well fitted with the country’s national vision, mission, and objectives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The implication of the public procurement system to the economic growth and development of a country', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1937-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-14 13:08:26', '2023-05-14 07:38:26', '', 1937, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1939', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2021, 1, '2024-06-09 21:23:17', '2024-06-09 15:53:17', '', 'openart-image_dExHKvwE_1717948346785_raw', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'openart-image_dexhkvwe_1717948346785_raw', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:23:17', '2024-06-09 15:53:17', '', 2016, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/openart-image_dExHKvwE_1717948346785_raw.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2022, 1, '2024-06-09 21:26:58', '2024-06-09 15:56:58', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Track or the Permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. It consists of two parallel rails having a specified distance in between and fastened to sleepers which are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over the formation. The rails are joined to each other by fish plates and bolts or welded and these are fastened to the sleepers by various fittings like keys and spikes, etc. The sleepers are spread at a specified distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2017,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.05.44.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2017\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Permanent way or track consists of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Rails</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Ballast</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Fittings and fasteners</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Rails</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Rails are similar to steel girders. It is a type of rolled steel section. These are placed end-to-end over sleepers to provide a continuous level surface for the trains to move.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The functions of rails are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide a pathway that is smooth and has very little friction,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Serves as a lateral guide for the running of wheels,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of formation through sleepers and ballast.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It bears the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, stresses due to lateral thrust, breaking stresses, and thermal stresses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Load bearing function of the track</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The load transfer works on the principle of stress reduction – layer by layer.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The greatest stress occurs between wheel and rail and is in the order of 30 kN/cm<sup>2</sup> or 300 Mpa.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Between rail and sleeper, the stress is two orders smaller and diminishes between sleeper and ballast bed down to about 30 N/cm<sup>2</sup>.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Finally, the stress on the formation is only about 05 N/cm<sup>2</sup>.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2018,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.05.04.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2018\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sleepers</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sleepers are transverse ties on which the rails are laid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main functions of sleepers are as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Giving a firm and even support to rails,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Transferring the load evenly from the rails to the ballast,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as an elastic medium between the rails and ballast to absorb vibration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing longitudinal and lateral stability,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing means to rectify the track geometry during its service life.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Distributes the axle load over a sufficiently large area of ballast.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To provide insulation for the electrified track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Different types of sleepers</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Wooden sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Steel sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Concrete sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Wooden sleepers</strong> - are the ideal type of sleeper. Hence they are universally used. The utility of timber sleepers has not diminished due to the passage of time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; They are easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are more useful for heavy loads and high speeds.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are easy to handle without damage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are more suitable for soft formations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They absorb shocks and vibrations better than other types of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: They are easily liable to attack by vermin and weather.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hence their life are lesser than other type of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their maintenance cost is highest in comparison to other types of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their useful life is short about 12 to 15 years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Steel sleepers</strong> - Due to the increasing shortage of timber and other economic factors have led to the use of steel and concrete sleepers on railways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is more durable. Its life is about 35 years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Lesser damage during handling and transport</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to vermin attacks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Its scrap value is very good</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: It is liable to corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cracks at rail seats develop during the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fittings required are greater in number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Concrete sleepers – </strong>Concrete ties have become more common mainly due to the greater economy and Shortage of timber.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is more durable having greater life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is economical as compared to wood and steel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to vermin attacks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: It is brittle and cracks without warning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It cannot be repaired and requires replacement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fittings required are greater in number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Ballast</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ballast is a layer of broken stone placed and packed below and around sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main functions of ballast are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Distribute the load from the sleepers to the formation,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing drainage as well as giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the track,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing effective means of maintaining evenness and alignment of the track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It transfers and distributes loads from the sleepers to a larger area of formation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It provides effective drainage to the track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It helps protect the top surface of the formation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Properties of Good Ballast –</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be hard.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be wear-resistant and durable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be cheaper and easily available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should not be brittle.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should not allow rainwater to accumulate.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>FISH PLATES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2019,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.06.09.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2019\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The function of a fish plate is to hold two rails together. At each, joint a pair of fish plates is used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Dog spikes:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2020,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.06.33.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2020\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dog spikes are used for holding the rail to the wooden sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2016-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:26:58', '2024-06-09 15:56:58', '', 2016, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2022', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(2023, 1, '2024-06-11 01:38:33', '2024-06-10 20:08:33', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil engineering is a dynamic field that integrates the principles of engineering with the latest technological advancements to design, construct, and maintain essential infrastructure. To meet the demanding requirements of the profession, civil engineers rely heavily on specialized software tools. These programs not only improve productivity but also enhance accuracy, efficiency, and collaboration across projects. Below, we explore some of the most important software tools that civil engineers use today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/civil-3d/overview?term=1-YEAR&amp;tab=subscription\">AutoCAD Civil 3D</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>AutoCAD Civil 3D is one of the most widely used software for civil engineering design and documentation. It supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows and helps civil engineers plan, design, and manage civil infrastructure projects. Its features include 3D modeling, dynamic design, and drafting tools that are integral for road design, land development, and transportation projects.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Integration:</strong> Supports Building Information Modeling (BIM), facilitating the efficient design and documentation of infrastructure projects.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Comprehensive Toolset:</strong> Offers extensive tools for surveying, designing, and visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interoperability:</strong> High compatibility with other Autodesk products, enhancing workflow efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Large user base and abundant resources for support and learning.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for small firms or individual users.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve for beginners, requiring significant training and practice.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires a powerful computer configuration to run smoothly.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. <strong><a href=\"https://staad.pro/\">STAAD.Pro</a></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>STAAD.Pro is a popular structural analysis and design software used by civil engineers to perform 3D model generation, linear static analysis, and advanced dynamic analysis. It supports the design of structures like buildings, bridges, and towers by providing a comprehensive range of analysis tools that conform to various international standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Supports various structural analysis tasks and works with different international standards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Detailed Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex analysis including dynamic, seismic, and nonlinear analyses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Bentley Systems software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Can be less intuitive and dated compared to newer software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires significant time to master all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000\">SAP2000</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SAP2000 is another powerful tool for structural analysis and design. Known for its simplicity and versatility, SAP2000 is employed for designing and analyzing any type of structural system, including buildings, bridges, and special structures. Its user-friendly interface and robust analytical capabilities make it a favorite among professionals.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User-friendly:</strong> Intuitive interface and easy-to-use functionalities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Capabilities:</strong> Excellent for complex structural analysis and design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatility:</strong> Suitable for a wide range of structures, from simple to complex.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Price:</strong> High cost, which might be prohibitive for smaller practices.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive and might require high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. <strong><a href=\"https://www.csiamerica.com/products/etabs\">ETABS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ETABS (Extended 3D Analysis of Building Systems) is specialized for building structures. It offers an intuitive and sophisticated interface coupled with advanced design features. ETABS is ideal for multi-story building analysis and design, incorporating everything from the simplest 2D frames to the most complex 3D models.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Tailored specifically for building structures, offering specialized tools and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>3D Modeling:</strong> Offers comprehensive 3D modeling and visualization capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integrated Design:</strong> Supports an integrated approach for architectural, structural, and MEP design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Can be expensive, especially for smaller firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Steep Learning Curve:</strong> Requires time and training to fully utilize all features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>System Requirements:</strong> Can be resource-intensive.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. <strong><a href=\"https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/architecture\">Revit</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Revit is a powerful BIM software by Autodesk used for creating detailed 3D models of buildings and infrastructure. Revit allows for the integrated design and collaboration of architectural, structural, and MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) elements, providing a comprehensive solution for multidisciplinary teams working on a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>BIM Focused:</strong> Excellent BIM capabilities, facilitating integrated design and collaboration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Multidisciplinary:</strong> Supports architectural, structural, and MEP design within a single platform.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Visualization:</strong> Strong visualization tools for design presentation and analysis.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High initial and subscription costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Performance:</strong> Can be slow with very large models, requiring high system specifications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Steep learning curve and requires significant training.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. <strong><a href=\"https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html\">MATLAB</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing and is particularly useful in civil engineering for tasks that involve matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementing algorithms, and creating user interfaces. It is especially beneficial for computational mechanics, simulation, and modeling tasks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Versatile:</strong> Excellent for computational tasks, simulations, and modeling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Powerful:</strong> Highly capable for complex numerical analysis and data visualization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Extensible:</strong> Wide range of toolboxes for various applications.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Expensive licensing, especially with additional toolboxes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Requires understanding of programming and mathematical concepts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Not specifically geared towards civil engineering, may require customization.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. <strong><a href=\"https://www.oracle.com/construction-engineering/primavera-p6/\">Primavera P6</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Primavera P6 is a project management software that is commonly used in civil engineering for planning, managing, and executing large scale projects. It assists in scheduling, resource allocation, and project tracking, helping to ensure that projects are delivered on time and within budget.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Robust Scheduling:</strong> Excellent for large-scale project management and scheduling.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Powerful resource management features.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Reporting:</strong> Provides detailed reporting and analytics.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High cost for licensing.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Complexity:</strong> Can be complex to set up and use effectively.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Might require additional tools for full integration with other software.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. <strong><a href=\"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/project-management-software\">MS Project</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Microsoft Project is another effective project management tool used in the civil engineering domain. It helps teams to plan projects, assign tasks, track progress, manage budgets, and analyze workloads. Its integration with other Microsoft Office tools adds to its versatility and usability.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Ease of Use:</strong> User-friendly interface familiar to those who use other Microsoft Office products.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Integration:</strong> Integrates well with other Microsoft products like Excel, Outlook, and SharePoint.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Management:</strong> Offers robust features for resource allocation and tracking.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing can be expensive, especially for large teams.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Features:</strong> May lack some advanced features found in more specialized project management tools.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Customization:</strong> Limited customization options compared to some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9. <strong><a href=\"https://www.civildesigner.com/\">Civil Designer</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Civil Designer is an all-in-one civil engineering software suite that supports infrastructure design and documentation needs. It covers a range of services from roads, stormwater drainage, and water supply networks, to sewer design – making it an indispensable tool for municipal engineers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>All-in-One:</strong> Comprehensive suite covering multiple aspects of civil engineering design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specific Focus:</strong> Tailored towards civil designers, incorporating tools specifically for roads, stormwater, and sewer design.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Community:</strong> Good support and learning resources available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Learning Curve:</strong> Can be challenging to learn and master, especially for beginners.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Interface:</strong> May not be as modern or intuitive as some competitors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> Licensing costs can be high.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">10. <strong><a href=\"https://www.bentley.com/software/plaxis-3d/\">PLAXIS</a></strong></h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>PLAXIS is a finite element geotechnical engineering software for analyzing the deformation and stability in soil and rock engineering projects. It is particularly advantageous for tasks involving excavations, embankments, and tunneling, providing powerful analysis tools and user-friendly interfaces for engineers specialized in geotechnical work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Pros:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialization:</strong> Designed specifically for geotechnical analysis, making it highly specialized.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Advanced Analysis:</strong> Capable of complex geotechnical calculations and simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>User Interface:</strong> Relatively user-friendly for its advanced capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Cons:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cost:</strong> High licensing costs.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Specialized Use:</strong> Mainly for geotechnical engineering, so it may not be useful for more general civil engineering tasks.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Resource Intensive:</strong> Requires powerful computer hardware to perform advanced simulations.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion</h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the ever-evolving field of civil engineering, staying proficient with the latest software is essential. These tools not only streamline tasks but also foster collaboration, improve precision, and ultimately contribute to the success of engineering projects. As the field continues to advance, new software and updates to existing tools will undoubtedly continue to reshape the way civil engineers work, enabling them to meet the complex challenges of tomorrow\'s infrastructure needs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ever wonder which type of software is best suited for you? <strong><a href=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/best-software-for-civil-engineering/\">Click here</a> </strong>to find out</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'The Essential Software for Civil Engineers in 2024', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'the-essential-software-for-civil-engineers-in-2024', '', '', '2024-06-11 02:45:11', '2024-06-10 21:15:11', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2023', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1941, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2023-05-14 07:40:07', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1941', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1941/', 30, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1942, 1, '2023-05-15 19:39:11', '2023-05-15 14:09:11', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction contracts are normally awarded to a qualified bidder who is having:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Appropriate capabilities; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Other resources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be achieved in two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) To verify whether the selected bidder possesses the required qualifications and experience before the contract award (post qualification);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) To ensure that bids are submitted only by firms that have the necessary qualifications and experience (pre-qualification).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hence <strong>Purpose of Pre-qualification</strong> is:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure that bids are submitted only by firms, or a group of firms possess the necessary qualification in terms of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Experience and past performance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Financial capacity; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Technical capability concerning personnel, equipment, and plant<strong>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Prequalification is generally used for;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large or complex civil works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Design and Build or Turnkey contracts;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Supply and installation of expensive or technically complex industrial plant/equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advantages of pre-qualification:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For insufficiently qualified bidders;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Avoid the expense of bidding;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourage to form joint ventures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For clients</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Protect from unqualified bidders;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Indicate the number of firms interested in bidding;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Reduces the amount of work/time involved in evaluating bids from unqualified bidders;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assess the eligibility for domestic preference.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For qualified bidders;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourages reputable contractors to bid;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourage them to price their bids with the awareness that they are competing against other qualified bidders;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assures the bid will not be rejected on qualification grounds.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Disadvantages of pre-qualification:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Increase procurement lead time;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The client is required to review all prequalification applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Collusion is easier among a limited number of bidders.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pre-qualification Process;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Advertisement;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issue of Pre-qualification Questionnaire;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of pre-qualification applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Evaluation of applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Inviting all firms found capable of performing the contract to submit bids.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Evaluation of prequalification applications:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Criteria comprise establishing whether the applicant has adequate:</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Financial capacity;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Technical capacity;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Relevant experience.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Methods of Evaluation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two methods are widely practiced:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Scoring system:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Pass/fail criteria.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Scoring system:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Major features:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Establishment of groups and assignment of the minimum score;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assignment of sub-criteria to each group.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Usually 3 groups;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>&nbsp;Financial capability;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Technical qualifications (management, staff, and equipment);</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Experience (including past performance).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pass/fail criteria:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Major features:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pre-qualification will be based on applicants meeting all the minimum pass-fail criteria of the predefined factors given in the prequalification document.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Factors considered:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>General construction experience;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Financial position;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Personnel and equipment capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pre-Qualification Document</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The pre-qualification document generally consists of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Invitation for pre-qualification;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Instructions to applicants;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Letter of application; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Standard forms to submit information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Pre-Qualification – for Construction Contracts', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'pre-qualification-for-construction-contracts', '', '', '2023-05-15 19:39:12', '2023-05-15 14:09:12', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1942', 0, 'post', '', 1),
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(1944, 1, '2023-05-15 19:39:11', '2023-05-15 14:09:11', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction contracts are normally awarded to a qualified bidder who is having:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Appropriate capabilities; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Other resources.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This can be achieved in two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) To verify whether the selected bidder possesses the required qualifications and experience before the contract award (post qualification);</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) To ensure that bids are submitted only by firms that have the necessary qualifications and experience (pre-qualification).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hence <strong>Purpose of Pre-qualification</strong> is:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To ensure that bids are submitted only by firms, or a group of firms possess the necessary qualification in terms of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Experience and past performance,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Financial capacity; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Technical capability concerning personnel, equipment, and plant<strong>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Prequalification is generally used for;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Large or complex civil works;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Design and Build or Turnkey contracts;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Supply and installation of expensive or technically complex industrial plant/equipment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advantages of pre-qualification:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For insufficiently qualified bidders;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Avoid the expense of bidding;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourage to form joint ventures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For clients</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Protect from unqualified bidders;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Indicate the number of firms interested in bidding;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Reduces the amount of work/time involved in evaluating bids from unqualified bidders;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assess the eligibility for domestic preference.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>For qualified bidders;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourages reputable contractors to bid;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Encourage them to price their bids with the awareness that they are competing against other qualified bidders;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assures the bid will not be rejected on qualification grounds.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Disadvantages of pre-qualification:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Increase procurement lead time;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The client is required to review all prequalification applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Collusion is easier among a limited number of bidders.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pre-qualification Process;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Advertisement;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Issue of Pre-qualification Questionnaire;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Receipt of pre-qualification applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Evaluation of applications;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Inviting all firms found capable of performing the contract to submit bids.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Evaluation of prequalification applications:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Criteria comprise establishing whether the applicant has adequate:</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Financial capacity;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Technical capacity;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Relevant experience.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Methods of Evaluation</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Two methods are widely practiced:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Scoring system:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Pass/fail criteria.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Scoring system:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Major features:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Establishment of groups and assignment of the minimum score;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Assignment of sub-criteria to each group.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Usually 3 groups;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>&nbsp;Financial capability;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Technical qualifications (management, staff, and equipment);</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Experience (including past performance).</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pass/fail criteria:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Major features:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pre-qualification will be based on applicants meeting all the minimum pass-fail criteria of the predefined factors given in the prequalification document.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Factors considered:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>General construction experience;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Financial position;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Personnel and equipment capabilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Pre-Qualification Document</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The pre-qualification document generally consists of:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Invitation for pre-qualification;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Instructions to applicants;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>c) Letter of application; and</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>d) Standard forms to submit information.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Pre-Qualification – for Construction Contracts', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1942-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-15 19:39:11', '2023-05-15 14:09:11', '', 1942, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1944', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2226, 1, '2024-07-21 23:25:10', '2024-07-21 17:55:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The work on a site for a low-rise building involves essential preparatory tasks to commence construction. These SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS ensure that everything is in place for the successful execution of the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Checking Plot Boundaries</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS start with checking the plot boundaries as soon as the site is made available. This involves ensuring that the boundary stones are in place and that the dimensions match the site plans. Any discrepancies should be reconciled before any other work begins.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Site Preparation Work</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, the following tasks are crucial:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Land Clearing</strong>: Includes demolition of existing buildings and disposal or recycling of waste.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Grading and Earthwork</strong>: The topsoil should be removed to a depth of 100-150 mm. The excavated topsoil is usually retained on-site for landscaping after construction. The site is graded by cutting and filling as needed, often using mechanical plants during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Stormwater Drainage and Erosion Control</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper stormwater drainage is a critical aspect of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS. The site should be graded to manage water flow effectively to prevent erosion, especially having removed the topsoil. If the water table is high, groundwater may need to be pumped out during foundation work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Access Roads</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Access roads and footpaths are essential for the movement of workers and materials as part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS. These must be well-planned with proper surfacing, curbs, and drainage. For long-duration sites with heavy traffic, temporary road surfaces may need to be asphalted.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Essential Services</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, setting up necessary services such as water, electricity, and telecommunications is crucial:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Water Supply</strong>: This can come from mains supply with storage facilities, or wells with appropriate pumping and storage systems.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Electricity</strong>: Supplied from mains service or on-site generators.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Fuel Storage</strong>: Proper, dedicated storage facilities are essential to avoid safety hazards.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Communication</strong>: Landlines, mobile services, email, and fax facilities should be established for efficient communication.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Temporary Buildings</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction site, as part of SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, requires several temporary buildings:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Site Office</strong>: Positioned in a noise- and dust-free area with complete office facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Worker’s Mess</strong>: Located away from work zones, providing space and amenities for the workforce including first aid and recreational facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Canteen</strong>: Also away from work areas, equipped with adequate cooking and dining facilities.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Stores</strong>: Strategically placed for security and ease of access, covered for perishable materials, and open for bulk materials.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Material Storage Considerations</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For efficiency during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS, ensure material storage is appropriately organized:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Cement</strong>: Stored under cover, near mixers.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Aggregates, Timber, Steel</strong>: Positioned conveniently within crane radius or near hoists.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Bricks and Blocks</strong>: Located for ease of delivery and close to hoists.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Other Materials</strong>: Doors, windows, and fittings, are stored safely to avoid damage.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Plant and Equipment Setup</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Proper placement of machinery and equipment is critical during SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Crane &amp; Hoist</strong>: Positioned based on load capacity and work requirements.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Mixer</strong>: Close to main work areas and aggregate storage.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Generator</strong>: Isolated to ensure safety.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><strong>Block Maker, Steel Bender, Power Saws</strong>: Positioned for operational efficiency.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Safety Measures</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS also include setting up toilets and lavatories, hoarding, and fences. Ensure good drainage, adequate water supply, and easy maintenance for sanitary facilities. Security fences and safety signs are important to protect workers and the public</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'SITE PRELIMINARY WORKS', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'site-preliminary-works', '', '', '2024-07-21 23:32:35', '2024-07-21 18:02:35', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2226', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2006, 1, '2024-06-08 17:14:46', '2024-06-08 11:44:46', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Professional Indemnity Insurance?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance is a form of liability insurance that provides cover for the financial consequences of professional negligence, following a breach of professional duty by way of neglect, error, or omission.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition, an indemnity is provided regarding the legal and other costs and expenses incurred in the defense of any claim. The general philosophy in the litigious world that we now live in tends to be if something goes wrong, somebody must be to blame, and that somebody has to pay.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A consultant cannot ignore an allegation of professional negligence. The allegation must be defended or admitted, and as a result, there will be cost implications in either case. Professional indemnity insurance provides the ultimate safety net when all else fails.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Who needs it?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Any professional person providing advice, design, specifications, supervision, etc., whether for a fee or gratuitously, owes a duty of care to their client, and third parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duty of care owed is generally the exercise of “reasonable skill and care”, in the discharge of the services provided. If a consultant fails to exercise this duty (i.e. is negligent) they may be liable for losses incurred by their client and third parties. Taking into account the operation of the present legal system, even proving innocence can be very costly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>It is designed to protect the Consultant</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A Consultant purchases professional indemnity insurance for his protection. The cover is not for the benefit of the Consultant’s Client, although far too often, it is not seen that way. Clients cannot claim directly against the Professional indemnity cover carried by the Consultants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- they must prove liability first, a process which can be time-consuming, expensive, and uncertain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How does liability attach?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Personal liability attaches where a practice operates as either a sole proprietor or a partnership. In the case of a partnership, liability is joint and several. Even when a practice ceases to operate, these personal liabilities do not come to an end, but continue for the limitation periods in contract and tort.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What can consultants be liable for?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First, any potential plaintiff must prove negligence on the Consultant’s behalf, (i.e. a failure to exercise reasonable skill and care in the discharge of its services).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A claim can be brought in contract or tort. It is often more difficult to succeed in a claim in tort as the following tests must be satisfied:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff must prove that the consultant owed him a duty of care.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff must prove that the consultant has breached that duty.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff has suffered financial loss as a direct result of that breach.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If an allegation of negligence is upheld the Consultant is likely to be liable for the losses incurred by the plaintiff which arise as a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the Consultant’s actions. The Consultant will often be responsible for the plaintiff’s legal costs and these can be substantial. It is often the case that large sums of money are spent simply trying to recover fairly minor losses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Direct financial losses (economic and consequential loss) as opposed to the cost of rectifying a defect are implicit under contract unless specifically excluded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is the extent of cover?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance provides only limited cover against the consequences of claims for Professional Negligence. Unless contractual limitations have been agreed between the consultant and his client, the Consultant’s liability:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>is unlimited in amount, and,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>extends over a considerable period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance, by contrast:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>will have a set limit on the amount that insurers will pay,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the limit of indemnity,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>operates for a set period,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the period of insurance,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>is subject to the policy terms, conditions, limitations, and exclusions.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Unique operation of Professional Indemnity Policies</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance operates on what is known as a “claims made” basis. This means that it is the policy in force at the time the claim is notified which will operate, irrespective of when the work was undertaken or when the alleged act of negligence took place.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ability of clients or third parties to bring claims many years after services are complete (subject to the relevant limitation periods) emphasizes the importance of maintaining cover in the future.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Limits of Indemnity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The limit of indemnity is the maximum amount that can be claimed from insurers for the Consultant’s liability to pay claimant damages. Defense costs may also be paid in addition to the limit of indemnity in certain policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disclosing the limit of indemnity to a client does not lead to a limitation of liability, which can only be achieved by negotiating a specific financial cap as part of the Consultant\'s appointment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The limit of indemnity operates in one of two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Each and every claim cover</strong> - this means that the indemnity limit applies separately to each claim that is made under the policy. However, all claims arising from the same occurrence would be regarded by insurers as one claim.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Aggregate cover</strong> - the limit of indemnity would apply as one single amount for all claims made in each period of insurance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PROFESSIONAL INDEMNITY INSURANCE', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'professional-indemnity-insurance', '', '', '2024-06-08 17:14:52', '2024-06-08 11:44:52', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2006', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2180, 1, '2024-07-10 20:20:01', '2024-07-10 14:50:01', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>THE SEPTIC TANK</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The septic tank is used to treat the sewage from individual buildings. The sewage will pass through sewer pipes from toilets to the septic tank at the house.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The septic tank is a sealed round or rectangular container that is used to break down the sewage so that it becomes effluent through the action of bacteria living on the waste matter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A household septic tank usually consists single rectangular concrete tank with a dividing wall in it. The septic tank is constructed close to the house where it is going to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2182,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2182\"/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>Longitudinal Section of a Rectangular Septic Tank</strong></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Septic tanks are always divided into two sections. Normally, the first is approximately twice the size of the second tank. In rectangular tanks, there is a brick wall constructed crosswise to provide the division. An opening is provided in the dividing wall below the level of the sewage level to allow effluent to pass from the first to the second section.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Rectangular tanks usually have concrete bottoms slabs and lids, but some may have metal lids. The lids can be lifted off during de-sludging or maintenance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How a septic tank works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A septic tank must be filled with water before it is used. It helps to start the treatment of the sewage by the bacteria. The sewage treated by the bacteria turns the waste matter into effluent (wastewater) and a solid substance called sludge. The top surface of the material in the septic tank gets covered by a hard crust known as a scum blanket<strong>. </strong>This blanket acts as an air sealkeeping oxygen away from the sewage. The lack of oxygen helps in the breakdown of the sewage by the bacteria.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sludge collects at the bottom of the tanks. Ultimately, there will be too much sludge in the tank and it must be pumped out or removed, and disposed of properly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The advantage of having two tanks in a rectangular tank is most of the sludge stays in the first tank or section during the operation. In the second tank or section, the sewage undergoes further treatment to remove solid matter. The effluent then flows to the soakage pit. However, this effluent still contains a considerable amount of germs and parasites.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Soakage Pits</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Soakage pits are used to soak septic tank effluent into the surrounding soil. They do not provide any direct treatment and are based on the principle that the effluent gets treated as it passes through the surrounding soil before entering the groundwater table or other water bodies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore following shall be noted in building and using soakage pits.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Soakage pits shall be;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 18 m away from a well or other drinking water source,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 5 m from the nearest building,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 10 - 20 m from any other soakage pit,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 1.5 m shall be kept between the bottom of the tank to the seasonal groundwater table,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>adequate contact area with the surrounding soil to absorb the effluent into the soil. In clayey soil, larger pits will be needed.</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>Adequate openings shall be left in the walls of the pit to have contact with the surrounding soil.</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2183,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2183\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Septic Tank and Soakage Pit', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'septic-tank-and-soakage-pit', '', '', '2024-07-10 20:44:22', '2024-07-10 15:14:22', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2180', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(2184, 1, '2024-07-10 20:20:01', '2024-07-10 14:50:01', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>THE SEPTIC TANK</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The septic tank is used to treat the sewage from individual buildings. The sewage will pass through sewer pipes from toilets to the septic tank at the house.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The septic tank is a sealed round or rectangular container that is used to break down the sewage so that it becomes effluent through the action of bacteria living on the waste matter.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A household septic tank usually consists single rectangular concrete tank with a dividing wall in it. The septic tank is constructed close to the house where it is going to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2182,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2182\"/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>Longitudinal Section of a Rectangular Septic Tank</strong></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Septic tanks are always divided into two sections. Normally, the first is approximately twice the size of the second tank. In rectangular tanks, there is a brick wall constructed crosswise to provide the division. An opening is provided in the dividing wall below the level of the sewage level to allow effluent to pass from the first to the second section.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Rectangular tanks usually have concrete bottoms slabs and lids, but some may have metal lids. The lids can be lifted off during de-sludging or maintenance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How a septic tank works</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A septic tank must be filled with water before it is used. It helps to start the treatment of the sewage by the bacteria. The sewage treated by the bacteria turns the waste matter into effluent (wastewater) and a solid substance called sludge. The top surface of the material in the septic tank gets covered by a hard crust known as a scum blanket<strong>. </strong>This blanket acts as an air sealkeeping oxygen away from the sewage. The lack of oxygen helps in the breakdown of the sewage by the bacteria.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sludge collects at the bottom of the tanks. Ultimately, there will be too much sludge in the tank and it must be pumped out or removed, and disposed of properly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The advantage of having two tanks in a rectangular tank is most of the sludge stays in the first tank or section during the operation. In the second tank or section, the sewage undergoes further treatment to remove solid matter. The effluent then flows to the soakage pit. However, this effluent still contains a considerable amount of germs and parasites.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Soakage Pits</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Soakage pits are used to soak septic tank effluent into the surrounding soil. They do not provide any direct treatment and are based on the principle that the effluent gets treated as it passes through the surrounding soil before entering the groundwater table or other water bodies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore following shall be noted in building and using soakage pits.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Soakage pits shall be;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 18 m away from a well or other drinking water source,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 5 m from the nearest building,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 10 - 20 m from any other soakage pit,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>at least 1.5 m shall be kept between the bottom of the tank to the seasonal groundwater table,</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>adequate contact area with the surrounding soil to absorb the effluent into the soil. In clayey soil, larger pits will be needed.</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li><em>Adequate openings shall be left in the walls of the pit to have contact with the surrounding soil.</em></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2183,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2183\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Septic Tank and Soakage Pit', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2180-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-10 20:20:01', '2024-07-10 14:50:01', '', 2180, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2184', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2185, 1, '2024-07-10 20:43:52', '2024-07-10 15:13:52', '', '', 'Photo by <a href=\"https://unsplash.com/@unstable_affliction?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash\">Ivan Bandura</a> on <a href=\"https://unsplash.com/photos/top-view-of-concrete-structures-Ac97OqAWDvg?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash\">Unsplash</a>\n  ', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'ivan-bandura-ac97oqawdvg-unsplash', '', '', '2024-07-10 20:44:08', '2024-07-10 15:14:08', '', 2180, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ivan-bandura-Ac97OqAWDvg-unsplash.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2015, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2015', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/2015/', 25, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(2016, 1, '2024-06-09 21:26:58', '2024-06-09 15:56:58', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Track or the Permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. It consists of two parallel rails having a specified distance in between and fastened to sleepers which are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over the formation. The rails are joined to each other by fish plates and bolts or welded and these are fastened to the sleepers by various fittings like keys and spikes, etc. The sleepers are spread at a specified distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2017,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.05.44.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2017\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Permanent way or track consists of;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Rails</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Ballast</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Fittings and fasteners</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Formation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Rails</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Rails are similar to steel girders. It is a type of rolled steel section. These are placed end-to-end over sleepers to provide a continuous level surface for the trains to move.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The functions of rails are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Provide a pathway that is smooth and has very little friction,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Serves as a lateral guide for the running of wheels,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of formation through sleepers and ballast.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It bears the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, stresses due to lateral thrust, breaking stresses, and thermal stresses.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Load bearing function of the track</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The load transfer works on the principle of stress reduction – layer by layer.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The greatest stress occurs between wheel and rail and is in the order of 30 kN/cm<sup>2</sup> or 300 Mpa.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Between rail and sleeper, the stress is two orders smaller and diminishes between sleeper and ballast bed down to about 30 N/cm<sup>2</sup>.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Finally, the stress on the formation is only about 05 N/cm<sup>2</sup>.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2018,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.05.04.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2018\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sleepers</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sleepers are transverse ties on which the rails are laid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main functions of sleepers are as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Giving a firm and even support to rails,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Transferring the load evenly from the rails to the ballast,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To act as an elastic medium between the rails and ballast to absorb vibration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing longitudinal and lateral stability,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing means to rectify the track geometry during its service life.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Distributes the axle load over a sufficiently large area of ballast.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>To provide insulation for the electrified track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Different types of sleepers</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Wooden sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Steel sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Concrete sleepers</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Wooden sleepers</strong> - are the ideal type of sleeper. Hence they are universally used. The utility of timber sleepers has not diminished due to the passage of time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; They are easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are more useful for heavy loads and high speeds.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are easy to handle without damage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are more suitable for soft formations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They absorb shocks and vibrations better than other types of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: They are easily liable to attack by vermin and weather.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Hence their life are lesser than other type of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>They are susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their maintenance cost is highest in comparison to other types of sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Their useful life is short about 12 to 15 years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Steel sleepers</strong> - Due to the increasing shortage of timber and other economic factors have led to the use of steel and concrete sleepers on railways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is more durable. Its life is about 35 years.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Lesser damage during handling and transport</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to vermin attacks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Its scrap value is very good</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: It is liable to corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cracks at rail seats develop during the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fittings required are greater in number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Concrete sleepers – </strong>Concrete ties have become more common mainly due to the greater economy and Shortage of timber.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Advantages:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is more durable having greater life.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is economical as compared to wood and steel.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Easy to manufacture.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to vermin attacks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is not susceptible to fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disadvantages: It is brittle and cracks without warning.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It cannot be repaired and requires replacement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The fittings required are greater in number.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Ballast</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ballast is a layer of broken stone placed and packed below and around sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The main functions of ballast are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Distribute the load from the sleepers to the formation,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing drainage as well as giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the track,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Providing effective means of maintaining evenness and alignment of the track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It transfers and distributes loads from the sleepers to a larger area of formation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It provides effective drainage to the track.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It helps protect the top surface of the formation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Properties of Good Ballast –</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be hard.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be wear-resistant and durable.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should be cheaper and easily available.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should not be brittle.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It should not allow rainwater to accumulate.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>FISH PLATES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2019,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.06.09.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2019\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The function of a fish plate is to hold two rails together. At each, joint a pair of fish plates is used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Dog spikes:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":2020,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/WhatsApp-Image-2024-06-09-at-21.06.33.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2020\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dog spikes are used for holding the rail to the wooden sleepers.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'railway-track-construction', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:27:00', '2024-06-09 15:57:00', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2016', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1946, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2023-05-15 14:10:22', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1946', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1946/', 29, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1955, 1, '2023-05-27 05:02:59', '2023-05-26 23:32:59', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Alternative Dispute Resolution - ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR has been introduced to resolve disputes in construction contracts outside the Court system. It has come to play a very significant role in resolving disputes today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What does ADR mean? Any method of resolving disputes, other than those adopted by the courts of law as part of the system of justice established and administered by the State.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term includes all forms of alternative dispute resolution which involve the participation of a third-party neutral, whether in a determinative or non-determinative capacity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>ADR mechanisms come in as many forms as can be thought up by the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is difficult to generalize such methods.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>They have widely different meanings depending on their context of use or the judicial tradition within which they have developed.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Several standard methods have now become part of popular usage. They all have one or more of the basic features set out above.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Forms of ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Conciliation&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Negotiation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adjudication</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Dispute Resolution Boards</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Key Difference between Arbitration and other forms of ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditionally, the distinction between the two was drawn on the basis that in an arbitration the tribunal must act judicially whereas in other forms of ADR, an expert/neutral 3<sup>rd</sup> party decides according to his expertise or helps resolve the dispute by enabling the disputing parties to reach a mutually acceptable solution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is an established method of determining commercial disputes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is a private method of dispute resolution, chosen by the parties themselves as an effective way of putting an end to disputes between them without recourse to the Courts of law.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is arbitration?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Halsbury’s Laws of England – ‘The process by which a dispute or difference between two or more parties as to their mutual legal rights and liabilities is referred to and determined judicially and with binding effect by the application of the law by one or more persons (the arbitral tribunal) instead of a court of law’</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Black’s Law Dictionary – ‘A process of dispute resolution in which a neutral party renders a decision after a hearing at which both parties have an opportunity to be heard. Where arbitration is voluntary, the disputing parties select the arbitrator who has the power to render a binding decision’</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Characteristics of arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is an alternative to litigation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A private mechanism for dispute resolution. It is voluntary between the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is selected and controlled by the parties - Party autonomy.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The decision of the arbitrators is final and is binding on the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advantages of arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Disputes can be resolved faster than through Courts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Speed reduces the cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Control over the process and procedures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Ability to choose arbitrators who are experts in the area of dispute.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Confidentiality.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Key Features of Arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is a feature of the contract, in that the parties must agree in writing to arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contractual basis of arbitration means that it can be structured by the parties to meet the specific needs of their relationship.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The parties can set out the powers of the arbitrators, their jurisdiction, their qualifications, and any other matters the parties feel are relevant to their contractual relationship.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration provides for confidentiality, choice of language, and choice of site for the arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The parties can choose a neutral site or a site where the witnesses and documents are available or a convenient location.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The binding nature of the award means that the parties must honour the award.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Agreement to arbitrate</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the parties to a contract have agreed in writing that disputes in relation to that contract shall be referred to arbitration, then such disputes shall be settled by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Thus, to invoke the arbitral process, the contract between the parties must have a clause whereby the parties have agreed to refer their disputes for resolution by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>In the alternative, there can be a separate agreement between the parties where they have agreed that any dispute between them arising under another contract shall be referred for arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An agreement to arbitrate is the foundation stone of commercial arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It serves to evidence the consent of the parties to submit to arbitration. This consent is indispensable to the process of settling a dispute, which depends on the agreement of the parties for its very existence.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The arbitration agreement establishes the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An agreement to arbitrate shows that the parties have consented to resolve their disputes by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The element of consent is essential.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the parties have consented to arbitration, this consent cannot be unilaterally withdrawn.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Even if the Contract between the parties comes to an end, the obligation to arbitrate survives – the severability of the arbitration clause.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is an arbitration agreement?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An arbitration agreement means an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An Arbitration Agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or the form of a separate contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The arbitration clause</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When drafting an arbitration clause/agreement, care needs to be taken to ensure that it is appropriate for the particular circumstances of the case.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the briefest arbitration agreements to be reported merely stated: ‘Arbitration to be settled in London’- <em>Tritonia Shipping Inc vs South Nelson Forest Products Corporation (1966</em><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is an Ad hoc arbitration&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ad hoc arbitration is one which is not administered by an institution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Institutional arbitration&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An institutional arbitration is one in which a specialized institution with a permanent character intervenes and assumes the functions of aiding and administering the arbitral process, as provided by the rules of that institution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Arbitration in Construction contracts', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'arbitration-in-construction-contracts', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:03:01', '2023-05-26 23:33:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1955', 0, 'post', '', 2),
(1948, 1, '2023-05-15 19:47:23', '2023-05-15 14:17:23', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision to tender for a particular contract is mainly the responsibility of the senior management of the contracting firm.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three possible stages during the estimating and tendering process where this decision must be made.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The first is during the pre-selection stage if a pre-selection is carried out. This decision would be based on pre-selection information provided by the client. It may include such information as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Name of the job</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Name of the client, consultant, architect, and quantity surveyor,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Location of site</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>General description of the work involved</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Approximate cost range of the project</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Details of nominated subcontractors for major items</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Forms of contract to be used</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Procedure to be adopted in examining and correcting bids</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Anticipated date for possession of the site</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Period for completion of the works</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Approximate date for submission of bid document</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Duration of the tender period</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Bid validity period</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Anticipated value of liquidated damages (if any)</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Details of bond requirements (if any)</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Any particular conditions relating to the contract</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor may have indicated their intention to submit a tender at the pre-selection stage. However, he has a further opportunity after receiving all contract documents to review them and consider, with the availability of full information, whether to proceed or not.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The third and final point of the decision on whether to submit a tender is after the estimate has been prepared and the bid is ready to be submitted. A decision at this stage not to tender is rare. But, allows the contractor to evaluate the events during the bid preparation period,&nbsp; sometimes the changes in workload that have occurred in that time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision to bid will be based on the following factors;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Company’s current workload</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Company’s financial resources</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Availability of resources to undertake the work</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Type of work</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Location of the contract</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Identity of the client or promoter and their representative</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Detailed examination of the contract document&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Decision to tender in construction contract', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'decision-to-tender-in-construction-contract', '', '', '2023-05-15 19:47:24', '2023-05-15 14:17:24', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1948', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1950, 1, '2023-05-15 19:47:23', '2023-05-15 14:17:23', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision to tender for a particular contract is mainly the responsibility of the senior management of the contracting firm.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three possible stages during the estimating and tendering process where this decision must be made.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The first is during the pre-selection stage if a pre-selection is carried out. This decision would be based on pre-selection information provided by the client. It may include such information as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Name of the job</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Name of the client, consultant, architect, and quantity surveyor,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Location of site</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>General description of the work involved</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Approximate cost range of the project</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Details of nominated subcontractors for major items</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Forms of contract to be used</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Procedure to be adopted in examining and correcting bids</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Anticipated date for possession of the site</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Period for completion of the works</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Approximate date for submission of bid document</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Duration of the tender period</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Bid validity period</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Anticipated value of liquidated damages (if any)</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Details of bond requirements (if any)</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Any particular conditions relating to the contract</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor may have indicated their intention to submit a tender at the pre-selection stage. However, he has a further opportunity after receiving all contract documents to review them and consider, with the availability of full information, whether to proceed or not.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The third and final point of the decision on whether to submit a tender is after the estimate has been prepared and the bid is ready to be submitted. A decision at this stage not to tender is rare. But, allows the contractor to evaluate the events during the bid preparation period,&nbsp; sometimes the changes in workload that have occurred in that time.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decision to bid will be based on the following factors;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Company’s current workload</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Company’s financial resources</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Availability of resources to undertake the work</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Type of work</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Location of the contract</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Identity of the client or promoter and their representative</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Detailed examination of the contract document&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Decision to tender in construction contract', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1948-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-15 19:47:23', '2023-05-15 14:17:23', '', 1948, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1950', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1968, 1, '2023-06-17 23:23:38', '2023-06-17 17:53:38', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>According to NPA* Guidelines / Sri Lanka&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Domestic preference is given to local contractors, to encourage the local contractors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Eligibility for Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual/sole proprietor – shall be Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Partnerships - more than 50% owned by Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual&nbsp; Firms<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Shall be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>More than 50% are owned by Sri Lankans.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Joint Ventures<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Each constituent firm should satisfy the criteria mentioned for individual firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>JV must be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Application of the Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preference can be applied only if it is disclosed in the bidding documents.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The margin of preference is added to the foreign bidder’s price and not deducted from the domestic bidder’s price.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category I</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by bidders eligible for domestic preference.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category II</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by others.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The lowest evaluated in each category is selected first.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>These two are compared.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category I is the lower one it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category II is the lower one then the Domestic preference percetage (for example 10%) of this bid price is added to it and then compared with the Lowest Bid in Category I.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Even after this, the bid from Category II is lower, then it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Otherwise the bid from Category I is the preferred one.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*NPA – National Procurement Agency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Evaluation - Domestic Preference', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'bid-evaluation-domestic-preferenc', '', '', '2023-06-17 23:24:27', '2023-06-17 17:54:27', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1968', 0, 'post', '', 1),
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(1970, 1, '2023-06-17 23:23:38', '2023-06-17 17:53:38', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>According to NPA* Guidelines / Sri Lanka&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Domestic preference is given to local contractors, to encourage the local contractors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Eligibility for Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual/sole proprietor – shall be Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Partnerships - more than 50% owned by Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual  Firms<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Shall be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>More than 50% are owned by Sri Lankans.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Joint Ventures<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Each constituent firm should satisfy the criteria mentioned for individual firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>JV must be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Application of the Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preference can be applied only if it is disclosed in the bidding documents.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The margin of preference is added to the foreign bidder’s price and not deducted from the domestic bidder’s price.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category I</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by bidders eligible for domestic preference.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category II</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by others.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The lowest evaluated in each category is selected first.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>These two are compared.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category I is the lower one it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category II is the lower one then the Domestic preference percetage (for example 10%) of this bid price is added to it and then compared with the Lowest Bid in Category I.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Even after this, the bid from Category II is lower, then it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Otherwise the bid from Category I is the preferred one.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*NPA – National Procurement Agency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Evaluation - Domestic Preferenc', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1968-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-06-17 23:23:38', '2023-06-17 17:53:38', '', 1968, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1970', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1971, 1, '2023-06-17 23:24:26', '2023-06-17 17:54:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>According to NPA* Guidelines / Sri Lanka&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Domestic preference is given to local contractors, to encourage the local contractors.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Eligibility for Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual/sole proprietor – shall be Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Partnerships - more than 50% owned by Sri Lankan.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Individual&nbsp; Firms<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Shall be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>More than 50% are owned by Sri Lankans.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Joint Ventures<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Each constituent firm should satisfy the criteria mentioned for individual firms.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>JV must be registered in Sri Lanka.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Should not subcontract more than 10% of the work (excluding Provisional Sums and Contingencies) to foreign contractors.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Application of the Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Preference can be applied only if it is disclosed in the bidding documents.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The margin of preference is added to the foreign bidder’s price and not deducted from the domestic bidder’s price.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Domestic Preference</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category I</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by bidders eligible for domestic preference.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Category II</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- </strong>Bids offered by others.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The lowest evaluated in each category is selected first.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>These two are compared.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category I is the lower one it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the bid from Category II is the lower one then the Domestic preference percetage (for example 10%) of this bid price is added to it and then compared with the Lowest Bid in Category I.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Even after this, the bid from Category II is lower, then it is the preferred bid.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Otherwise the bid from Category I is the preferred one.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*NPA – National Procurement Agency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Evaluation - Domestic Preference', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1968-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-06-17 23:24:26', '2023-06-17 17:54:26', '', 1968, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1971', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(2007, 1, '2024-06-08 17:14:27', '2024-06-08 11:44:27', '', 'openart-image_Nzvxc4NB_1717846939584_raw', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'openart-image_nzvxc4nb_1717846939584_raw', '', '', '2024-06-08 17:14:27', '2024-06-08 11:44:27', '', 2006, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/openart-image_Nzvxc4NB_1717846939584_raw.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(2008, 1, '2024-06-08 17:14:46', '2024-06-08 11:44:46', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is Professional Indemnity Insurance?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance is a form of liability insurance that provides cover for the financial consequences of professional negligence, following a breach of professional duty by way of neglect, error, or omission.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition, an indemnity is provided regarding the legal and other costs and expenses incurred in the defense of any claim. The general philosophy in the litigious world that we now live in tends to be if something goes wrong, somebody must be to blame, and that somebody has to pay.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A consultant cannot ignore an allegation of professional negligence. The allegation must be defended or admitted, and as a result, there will be cost implications in either case. Professional indemnity insurance provides the ultimate safety net when all else fails.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Who needs it?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Any professional person providing advice, design, specifications, supervision, etc., whether for a fee or gratuitously, owes a duty of care to their client, and third parties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duty of care owed is generally the exercise of “reasonable skill and care”, in the discharge of the services provided. If a consultant fails to exercise this duty (i.e. is negligent) they may be liable for losses incurred by their client and third parties. Taking into account the operation of the present legal system, even proving innocence can be very costly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>It is designed to protect the Consultant</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A Consultant purchases professional indemnity insurance for his protection. The cover is not for the benefit of the Consultant’s Client, although far too often, it is not seen that way. Clients cannot claim directly against the Professional indemnity cover carried by the Consultants</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- they must prove liability first, a process which can be time-consuming, expensive, and uncertain.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How does liability attach?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Personal liability attaches where a practice operates as either a sole proprietor or a partnership. In the case of a partnership, liability is joint and several. Even when a practice ceases to operate, these personal liabilities do not come to an end, but continue for the limitation periods in contract and tort.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What can consultants be liable for?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First, any potential plaintiff must prove negligence on the Consultant’s behalf, (i.e. a failure to exercise reasonable skill and care in the discharge of its services).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A claim can be brought in contract or tort. It is often more difficult to succeed in a claim in tort as the following tests must be satisfied:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff must prove that the consultant owed him a duty of care.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff must prove that the consultant has breached that duty.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the plaintiff has suffered financial loss as a direct result of that breach.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If an allegation of negligence is upheld the Consultant is likely to be liable for the losses incurred by the plaintiff which arise as a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the Consultant’s actions. The Consultant will often be responsible for the plaintiff’s legal costs and these can be substantial. It is often the case that large sums of money are spent simply trying to recover fairly minor losses.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Direct financial losses (economic and consequential loss) as opposed to the cost of rectifying a defect are implicit under contract unless specifically excluded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is the extent of cover?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance provides only limited cover against the consequences of claims for Professional Negligence. Unless contractual limitations have been agreed between the consultant and his client, the Consultant’s liability:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>is unlimited in amount, and,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>extends over a considerable period.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance, by contrast:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>will have a set limit on the amount that insurers will pay,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the limit of indemnity,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>operates for a set period,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>the period of insurance,</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>is subject to the policy terms, conditions, limitations, and exclusions.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Unique operation of Professional Indemnity Policies</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Professional indemnity insurance operates on what is known as a “claims made” basis. This means that it is the policy in force at the time the claim is notified which will operate, irrespective of when the work was undertaken or when the alleged act of negligence took place.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ability of clients or third parties to bring claims many years after services are complete (subject to the relevant limitation periods) emphasizes the importance of maintaining cover in the future.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Limits of Indemnity</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The limit of indemnity is the maximum amount that can be claimed from insurers for the Consultant’s liability to pay claimant damages. Defense costs may also be paid in addition to the limit of indemnity in certain policies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disclosing the limit of indemnity to a client does not lead to a limitation of liability, which can only be achieved by negotiating a specific financial cap as part of the Consultant\'s appointment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The limit of indemnity operates in one of two ways:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Each and every claim cover</strong> - this means that the indemnity limit applies separately to each claim that is made under the policy. However, all claims arising from the same occurrence would be regarded by insurers as one claim.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Aggregate cover</strong> - the limit of indemnity would apply as one single amount for all claims made in each period of insurance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'PROFESSIONAL INDEMNITY INSURANCE', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2006-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-06-08 17:14:46', '2024-06-08 11:44:46', '', 2006, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2008', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(2201, 1, '2024-07-10 21:53:06', '2024-07-10 16:23:06', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Time, Cost, and Quality are triple constraints or three primary objectives that a project manager must balance in carrying out a project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What is quality? There are many definitions. The Institute of Quality Assurance (2002) says this about quality:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In its broadest sense, quality is a degree of excellence. It is the extent to which something is fit for its intended purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the narrow sense, product or service quality is defined as conformance with requirements, freedom from defects, or simply a degree of customer satisfaction.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), in its much-lauded <em>Quality in the Constructed Project: A Guide for Owners, Designers and Constructors </em>(American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000) defines quality as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>‘the fulfillment of project responsibilities in the delivery of products and services in a manner that meets or exceeds the stated requirements and expectations of the owner, design professional, and constructor’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>OR “contractor’s task in managing quality is to assure compliance with the technical requirements of the project, as described in the contract documents, through a series of steps that plan, execute, monitor and control the physical aspects of the work”.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Quality Assurance and Quality Control</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Although these terms are sometimes used synonymously, it is helpful to distinguish between them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality assurance may be defined as ‘planned and systematic actions focused on providing the members of the project team with confidence that components are designed and constructed in accordance with applicable standards and as specified by contract.’</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality control, on the other hand, is ‘the examination of services provided and completed work, together with management and documentation practices, that are geared to ensure that project services and work meet contractual requirements’ (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Thus a contractor’s <em>quality assurance </em>programme includes all activities that ‘assure quality’ includes the selection of subcontractors, training of the workforce, use of proper methodology, and the various testing activities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Quality control </em>is one part of quality assurance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One means of attempting to reduce construction quality problems and assuring quality performance by construction contractors is certification by the International Organization for Standardization. That organization uses the designation ISO to refer to all of its standards, the term is derived from the Greek <em>isos</em>, meaning <em>equal</em>; thus its standards apply equally or universally for a given situation or condition.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ISO standards related to quality are known as the ISO 9000 series of standards. The ISO 9001 standards are for organizations that design, produce, install, and service products, while the ISO 9002 standards apply to organizations that only produce, install, and service products. The standards apply to all kinds of organizations. In the area of construction, ISO 9002 certification is sought by contractors who do not perform design services, while design-build contractors fall under the ISO 9001 guidelines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Many owner organizations require their contractors to be ISO-certified or to meet similar standards.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following elements are appropriate for the quality assurance/quality control programme:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true,\"type\":\"lower-alpha\"} -->\n<ol style=\"list-style-type:lower-alpha\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Recruiting and assigning a skilled workforce<ol><li>Quality control organization</li></ol><ol><li>Project progress schedule</li></ol><ol><li>Submittal schedule</li></ol><ol><li>Inspections</li></ol><ol><li>Quality control testing plan</li></ol><ol><li>Documentation of quality control activities</li></ol><!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Procedures for corrective action when quality control and/or acceptance criteria are not met.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list --></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During the project operation phase, the contractor is usually required by the contract to furnish and abide by a quality plan.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>COST OF QUALITY</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality costs are broken down into two categories: the cost of prevention and appraisal and the cost of failure.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The breakdown of these costs is shown below:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Quality costs = Control costs + Failure costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Control costs = Prevention costs + Appraisal costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Failure costs = Internal failure costs + External failure costs</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In terms of construction, the prevention costs are the costs resulting from quality activities employed to avoid deviations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The appraisal costs consist of costs incurred from quality activities employed to determine whether a product, process, or service conforms to established requirements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The failure costs are the costs resulting from not meeting the requirements. Internal failure costs are the costs incurred on the project site due to scrap, rework, failure analysis, re-inspection, supplier error, or price reduction due to non-conformance. External failure costs are costs that are incurred once the project is in the hands of the client. These include costs for adjustments of complaints, repairs, handling, and replacement of rejected material, workmanship, correction of errors, and litigation costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '2199-revision-v1', '', '', '2024-07-10 21:53:06', '2024-07-10 16:23:06', '', 2199, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=2201', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1957, 1, '2023-05-27 05:02:59', '2023-05-26 23:32:59', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Alternative Dispute Resolution - ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR has been introduced to resolve disputes in construction contracts outside the Court system. It has come to play a very significant role in resolving disputes today.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>What does ADR mean? Any method of resolving disputes, other than those adopted by the courts of law as part of the system of justice established and administered by the State.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term includes all forms of alternative dispute resolution which involve the participation of a third-party neutral, whether in a determinative or non-determinative capacity.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>ADR mechanisms come in as many forms as can be thought up by the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is difficult to generalize such methods.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>They have widely different meanings depending on their context of use or the judicial tradition within which they have developed.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Several standard methods have now become part of popular usage. They all have one or more of the basic features set out above.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Forms of ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Conciliation&nbsp;</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Mediation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Negotiation</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Adjudication</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Dispute Resolution Boards</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The Key Difference between Arbitration and other forms of ADR</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditionally, the distinction between the two was drawn on the basis that in an arbitration the tribunal must act judicially whereas in other forms of ADR, an expert/neutral 3<sup>rd</sup> party decides according to his expertise or helps resolve the dispute by enabling the disputing parties to reach a mutually acceptable solution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is an established method of determining commercial disputes.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is a private method of dispute resolution, chosen by the parties themselves as an effective way of putting an end to disputes between them without recourse to the Courts of law.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is arbitration?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Halsbury’s Laws of England – ‘The process by which a dispute or difference between two or more parties as to their mutual legal rights and liabilities is referred to and determined judicially and with binding effect by the application of the law by one or more persons (the arbitral tribunal) instead of a court of law’</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Black’s Law Dictionary – ‘A process of dispute resolution in which a neutral party renders a decision after a hearing at which both parties have an opportunity to be heard. Where arbitration is voluntary, the disputing parties select the arbitrator who has the power to render a binding decision’</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Characteristics of arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is an alternative to litigation.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>A private mechanism for dispute resolution. It is voluntary between the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It is selected and controlled by the parties - Party autonomy.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The decision of the arbitrators is final and is binding on the parties.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advantages of arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Disputes can be resolved faster than through Courts.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Speed reduces the cost.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Control over the process and procedures.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Ability to choose arbitrators who are experts in the area of dispute.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Confidentiality.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Key Features of Arbitration</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration is a feature of the contract, in that the parties must agree in writing to arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The contractual basis of arbitration means that it can be structured by the parties to meet the specific needs of their relationship.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The parties can set out the powers of the arbitrators, their jurisdiction, their qualifications, and any other matters the parties feel are relevant to their contractual relationship.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Arbitration provides for confidentiality, choice of language, and choice of site for the arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The parties can choose a neutral site or a site where the witnesses and documents are available or a convenient location.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The binding nature of the award means that the parties must honour the award.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Agreement to arbitrate</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>If the parties to a contract have agreed in writing that disputes in relation to that contract shall be referred to arbitration, then such disputes shall be settled by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Thus, to invoke the arbitral process, the contract between the parties must have a clause whereby the parties have agreed to refer their disputes for resolution by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>In the alternative, there can be a separate agreement between the parties where they have agreed that any dispute between them arising under another contract shall be referred for arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An agreement to arbitrate is the foundation stone of commercial arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>It serves to evidence the consent of the parties to submit to arbitration. This consent is indispensable to the process of settling a dispute, which depends on the agreement of the parties for its very existence.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The arbitration agreement establishes the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An agreement to arbitrate shows that the parties have consented to resolve their disputes by arbitration.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>The element of consent is essential.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Once the parties have consented to arbitration, this consent cannot be unilaterally withdrawn.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Even if the Contract between the parties comes to an end, the obligation to arbitrate survives – the severability of the arbitration clause.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is an arbitration agreement?</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An arbitration agreement means an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>An Arbitration Agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or the form of a separate contract.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>The arbitration clause</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When drafting an arbitration clause/agreement, care needs to be taken to ensure that it is appropriate for the particular circumstances of the case.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>One of the briefest arbitration agreements to be reported merely stated: ‘Arbitration to be settled in London’- <em>Tritonia Shipping Inc vs South Nelson Forest Products Corporation (1966</em><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What is an Ad hoc arbitration&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ad hoc arbitration is one which is not administered by an institution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Institutional arbitration&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An institutional arbitration is one in which a specialized institution with a permanent character intervenes and assumes the functions of aiding and administering the arbitral process, as provided by the rules of that institution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Arbitration in Construction contracts', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1955-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:02:59', '2023-05-26 23:32:59', '', 1955, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1957', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
