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(1414, 1, '2021-01-15 20:30:14', '2021-01-15 15:00:14', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a) </strong>A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. Show that compression reinforcement will be required. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>f<sub>cu</sub> </em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup>, <em>f<sub>y</sub> </em>= 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>b) </strong>Calculate the number of 16 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as compression reinforcements. The distance of the center of compression reinforcement from the compression concrete surface may be taken as 40 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>c) </strong>Calculate the number of 25 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as tensile reinforcements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Answer:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1397,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-1.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams \" class=\"wp-image-1397\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Given&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b = 225 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d = 450 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d<sup>’</sup> = 40 mm,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>M = 300.0 kNm, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<em>f<sub>cu</sub></em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong>, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong><em>f<sub>y</sub></em>=460 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong>M &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 300.0 kNm&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 300 x 10<sup>6</sup> Nmm</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1398,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-2-1024x178.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1398\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong><u>Therefore, compression reinforcement will be required.</u></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1399,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-3-1024x187.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1399\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1400,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1400\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The compression steel will yield and the stress is equal to 0.95<em>f<sub>y</sub></em>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1401,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1401\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1402,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-6-1024x198.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1402\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1403,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1403\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1404,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1404\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1405,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-9-1024x214.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1405\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The force in the compression reinforcement is dependent on the stress and consequently the strain ζ<em><sub>cs</sub></em>. In order to ensure that this is greater than or equal to the yield stress, the ratio of (<em>d</em>′<em>/x</em>) is limited to 0.37 as shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1408,\"width\":-24,\"height\":214,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/28-10-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1408\" width=\"-24\" height=\"214\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1409,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-10-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1409\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1407,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1407\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This value is given as 0.37 in the code to accommodate redistribution of moments in excess of 10%.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Doubly Reinforced Beams – BS 8110:1:1997 – Example 1', 'A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1158-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:30:14', '2021-01-15 15:00:14', '', 1158, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1158-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1410, 1, '2021-01-15 20:26:20', '2021-01-15 14:56:20', 'Starter Templates Image - construction site, construction workers, building-1359136.jpg', 'construction site, construction workers, building-1359136', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'construction-site-construction-workers-building-1359136', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:26:20', '2021-01-15 14:56:20', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/construction-site-construction-workers-building-1359136/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1411, 1, '2021-01-15 20:27:43', '2021-01-15 14:57:43', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a) </strong>A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. Show that compression reinforcement will be required. &nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>f<sub>cu</sub> </em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup>, <em>f<sub>y</sub> </em>= 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>b) </strong>Calculate the number of 16 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as compression reinforcements. The distance of the center of compression reinforcement from the compression concrete surface may be taken as 40 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>c) </strong>Calculate the number of 25 mm diameter steel bars that will be required as tensile reinforcements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Answer:</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1397,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-1.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams \" class=\"wp-image-1397\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Given&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b = 225 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d = 450 mm,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d<sup>’</sup> = 40 mm,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>M = 300.0 kNm, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<em>f<sub>cu</sub></em>= 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong>, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong><em>f<sub>y</sub></em>=460 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>a)                     </strong>M         =          300.0 kNm      =          300 x 10<sup>6</sup> Nmm</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1398,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-2-1024x178.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1398\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                                    <strong><u>Therefore, compression reinforcement will be required.</u></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1399,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-3-1024x187.png\" alt=\"Doubly Reinforced Beams\" class=\"wp-image-1399\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1400,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1400\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The compression steel will yield and the stress is equal to 0.95<em>f<sub>y</sub></em>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1401,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1401\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1402,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-6-1024x198.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1402\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1403,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1403\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1404,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1404\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1405,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-9-1024x214.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1405\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>*        The force in the compression reinforcement is dependent on the stress and consequently the strain ζ<em><sub>cs</sub></em>. In order to ensure that this is greater than or equal to the yield stress, the ratio of (<em>d</em>′<em>/x</em>) is limited to 0.37 as shown below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1408,\"width\":-24,\"height\":214,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/28-10-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1408\" width=\"-24\" height=\"214\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1409,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-10-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1409\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1407,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/28-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1407\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This value is given as 0.37 in the code to accommodate redistribution of moments in excess of 10%.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Doubly Reinforced Beams – BS 8110:1:1997 – Example 1', 'A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth b = 225 mm and effective depth d = 450 mm. It has to carry a design moment of 300.0 kNm. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1158-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:27:43', '2021-01-15 14:57:43', '', 1158, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1158-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1431, 1, '2021-06-07 14:10:38', '2021-06-07 08:40:38', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p> </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-07 14:10:38', '2021-06-07 08:40:38', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1431', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1413, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-15 14:59:13', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1413', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1413/', 73, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1415, 1, '2021-01-15 20:44:29', '2021-01-15 15:14:29', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Question - </strong>A simply supported rectangular concrete beam of 7 m span carries a characteristic dead load (<em>G<sub>k</sub></em>), including self-weight of the beam, and imposed load (<em>Q<sub>k</sub></em>) of 7 kNm and 5 kNm respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The beam dimensions are breadth <em>b</em> = 225 mm and effective depth <em>d</em> = 400 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assume <em>f<sub>cu</sub></em> = 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup> and <em>f<sub>y</sub></em> = 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate the area of reinforcement required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Answer:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong> <strong>Given &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>b</em> = 225 mm, &nbsp; <em>d</em> = 400 mm, &nbsp; <em>l</em> = 7.00 m, &nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>G<sub>k</sub></em></strong><strong> = 7.00 kNm, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>Q<sub>k</sub></em> = 5.00 kNm,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>f<sub>cu</sub></em> = 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong>,          <strong><em>f<sub>y</sub></em> = 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ultimate load (<em>w</em>)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1.4<em>G<sub>k</sub></em> + 1.6 <em>Q<sub>k</sub></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                                                   =          (1.4 x 7.00) + (1.6 x 5.00) kN/m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                                                   =          17.80 kN/m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1417,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1417\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1418,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1418\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1419,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1419\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1420,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1420\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1421,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1421\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cross-sectional area of 01 no. 16 mm diameter bar = 201 mm<sup>2</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<strong>Provide 4 nos. of 16 mm diameter bars resulting 804 mm<sup>2</sup>.</strong><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Note: </em></strong><em>However, there are other limitations before considering the size and spacing of bars. Those factors will be discussed in another example.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Singly Reinforced Beams – BS 8110:1:1997 – Example 1', 'A simply supported rectangular concrete beam of 7 m span carries a characteristic dead load (Gk), including self-weight of the beam, and imposed load (Qk) of 7 kNm and 5 kNm respectively.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'singly-reinforced-beams-bs-811011997-example-1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:44:29', '2021-01-15 15:14:29', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1415', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1417, 1, '2021-01-15 20:35:37', '2021-01-15 15:05:37', '', '29 2', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '29-2', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:35:37', '2021-01-15 15:05:37', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-2.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1418, 1, '2021-01-15 20:37:03', '2021-01-15 15:07:03', '', '29-3', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '29-3', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:37:03', '2021-01-15 15:07:03', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-3.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1419, 1, '2021-01-15 20:37:25', '2021-01-15 15:07:25', '', '29-4', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '29-4', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:37:25', '2021-01-15 15:07:25', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-4.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1420, 1, '2021-01-15 20:38:30', '2021-01-15 15:08:30', '', '29-5', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '29-5', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:38:30', '2021-01-15 15:08:30', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-5.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1421, 1, '2021-01-15 20:39:32', '2021-01-15 15:09:32', '', '29-6', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', '29-6', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:39:32', '2021-01-15 15:09:32', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-6.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1422, 1, '2021-01-15 20:42:10', '2021-01-15 15:12:10', 'Starter Templates Image - arches, architecture, bridge-1837166.jpg', 'arches, architecture, bridge-1837166', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'arches-architecture-bridge-1837166', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:42:10', '2021-01-15 15:12:10', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/arches-architecture-bridge-1837166/', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1423, 1, '2021-01-15 20:44:29', '2021-01-15 15:14:29', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Question - </strong>A simply supported rectangular concrete beam of 7 m span carries a characteristic dead load (<em>G<sub>k</sub></em>), including self-weight of the beam, and imposed load (<em>Q<sub>k</sub></em>) of 7 kNm and 5 kNm respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The beam dimensions are breadth <em>b</em> = 225 mm and effective depth <em>d</em> = 400 mm.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assume <em>f<sub>cu</sub></em> = 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup> and <em>f<sub>y</sub></em> = 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate the area of reinforcement required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Answer:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong> <strong>Given &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>b</em> = 225 mm, &nbsp; <em>d</em> = 400 mm, &nbsp; <em>l</em> = 7.00 m, &nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>G<sub>k</sub></em></strong><strong> = 7.00 kNm, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>Q<sub>k</sub></em> = 5.00 kNm,</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>f<sub>cu</sub></em> = 30 N/mm<sup>2</sup></strong>,          <strong><em>f<sub>y</sub></em> = 460 N/mm<sup>2</sup>.</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Ultimate load (<em>w</em>)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1.4<em>G<sub>k</sub></em> + 1.6 <em>Q<sub>k</sub></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                                                   =          (1.4 x 7.00) + (1.6 x 5.00) kN/m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                                                   =          17.80 kN/m</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1417,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1417\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1418,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1418\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1419,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1419\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1420,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1420\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1421,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/29-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1421\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Cross-sectional area of 01 no. 16 mm diameter bar = 201 mm<sup>2</sup></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<strong>Provide 4 nos. of 16 mm diameter bars resulting 804 mm<sup>2</sup>.</strong><strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Note: </em></strong><em>However, there are other limitations before considering the size and spacing of bars. Those factors will be discussed in another example.</em><em></em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Singly Reinforced Beams – BS 8110:1:1997 – Example 1', 'A simply supported rectangular concrete beam of 7 m span carries a characteristic dead load (Gk), including self-weight of the beam, and imposed load (Qk) of 7 kNm and 5 kNm respectively.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1415-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-01-15 20:44:29', '2021-01-15 15:14:29', '', 1415, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1415-revision-v1/', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1564, 1, '2021-08-23 22:45:39', '2021-08-23 17:15:39', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the modern world, construction projects have become inevitably complex due to the dynamic business and technology-oriented environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Major improvements in nowadays construction projects are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Great deal of inputs involvement,</li><li>Accretion of numerous parties engaged,</li><li>Variety of technological attachment.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Poor stakeholder relationship frequently leads to many conflicts during the construction. Its ultimate results could be an origination of disputes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes derive to:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Additional <strong>cost </strong>involvement,</li><li>Additional <strong>time</strong> involvement,</li><li>Damaging the <strong>reputation </strong>of the company,</li><li>Depression in <strong>socio-economy</strong> in the country,</li><li>Spoiling stakeholders <strong>relationship.</strong></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes are widespread in every construction project due to ever-rising customer requirements and the number of stakeholder involvements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a common problem in the construction industry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These dispute needs to be managed by experienced and expert personnel through appropriate actions and strategies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, dispute handling may require the involvement of dispute management experts who has specific skills and competencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Primary causes for dispute occurrence</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Erroneous contract interpretation,</li><li>Drafting of ambiguous documentation,</li><li>Lack of information and project scope,</li><li>Issues regarding progress and quality,</li><li>Probable issues regarding adequate and timely payments, etc.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Root causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Unfair risk allocation among parties,</li><li>Unrealistic time/cost/quality targets set by the client,</li><li>Adversarial industry culture,</li><li>Inappropriate contract type,</li><li>Unrealistic information expectations.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Proximate causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Inadequate brief,</li><li>Slow client responses,</li><li>Inaccurate design information,</li><li>Inaccurate design documentation,</li><li>Inappropriate contract form,</li><li>Inadequate contract administration,</li><li>Inappropriate contractor selection.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Handling Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Dispute Management</li><li>Dispute avoidance</li><li>Dispute Resolution</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Management</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"left\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">Dispute management is a process of problem identification, quantification, and resolution. It involves developing a system that includes defining a set of skills required to minimize the possibility of disputes occurring, and managing them effectively without escalation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It needs proactive measures rather than reactive in dispute resolution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is effective in providing a solution for disputes. Its primary focus should be on managing and controlling the causes of disputes. Therefore, the involvement of key project players with skill, knowledge, and experience is essential in the dispute identification stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concentrating solely to avoid conflicts before it escalates into a major dispute may be a great comfort to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Avoidance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For avoiding disputes, a careful investigation and complete awareness of the project are necessary. Dispute avoidance is to handle and resolve conflict before disputes occur or before it escalates into a major disagreement or dispute.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initial involvement in the project may bring all means of settling issues to avoid disputes, consistent with the requirements of the client.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, a simplistic and straightforward approach of care and management in the preparation of documentation without ambiguity may avoid disputes at later stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute resolution arises only when there is a dispute and reference is made to resolve it. Disputes can be resolved in many ways using various procedures, such as by court proceedings, using other formal or informal settings involving Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR methods include dispute resolving processes and techniques that fall outside of the government judicial processes.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instead of time consuming and expensive litigation process, ADR methods were introduced to provide effective and efficient solutions for disputes. ADR methods eliminate most of the undesirable features of litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it is advisable to resolve disputes with the ‘‘least possible intervention by an outside third party’’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR popularity has increased due to its flexibility, cost-effectiveness of the process, and ability to bring a speedy conclusion to the problem.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dispute resolution in Construction Projects', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'dispute-resolution', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:25:59', '2021-08-24 04:55:59', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1564', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1435, 1, '2021-06-07 14:12:39', '2021-06-07 08:42:39', '<h2>About</h2>		\n												<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />														\n		<p>I am Ranjith Ekanayake, a retired civil engineer having 38 years of working experience plus more than 23 years of lecturing experience in parallel. My effort is to make civil engineering resources available and accessible to anybody having an interest in this field, especially young students. I am originally a civil engineering diploma holder, later acquired a diploma in the field of public procurement and contract administration. In the meantime, I have qualified and fulfilled the requirements to obtain a post- graduate diploma in construction law and dispute resolution. Also, I have an MBA for which my thesis was based on service quality in the area of marketing management.</p><p>During my career, I have spent nearly 10 years in very remote areas engaging in the largest multi-development project of our country. Then, I had the opportunity to work another 8 years in the operation and maintenance field of large dams and reservoirs in the country.</p><p>For the latter part of my career, about 20 years, I worked in the engineering department of a government bank, during which I mainly engaged in procurement and contract administration activities. Additionally, during my free time, I shared my knowledge and experience with younger generations who wish to enter the construction field. My goal is not just to create a blog, but to spread my knowledge and experience for a better future with enhanced knowledge in engineering and technology, to create the society we live in an even better and safer place.</p><p> </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-07 14:12:39', '2021-06-07 08:42:39', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1435', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1432, 1, '2021-06-07 14:10:39', '2021-06-07 08:40:39', '<h2>About</h2>		\n												<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />														\n		<p>I am Ranjith Ekanayake, a retired civil engineer having 38 years of working&nbsp;experience plus more than 23 years of lecturing experience in parallel.&nbsp;My effort is to make civil engineering resources available and accessible to&nbsp;anybody having an interest in this field, especially young students.&nbsp;I am originally a civil engineering diploma holder, later acquired a diploma in the&nbsp;field of public procurement and contract administration.&nbsp;In the meantime, I have qualified and fulfilled the requirements to obtain a post-&nbsp;graduate diploma in construction law and dispute resolution.&nbsp;Also, I have an MBA for which my thesis was based on service quality in the area&nbsp;of marketing management.</p><p>During my career, I have spent nearly 10 years in very remote areas engaging in&nbsp;the largest multi-development project of our country.&nbsp;Then, I had the opportunity to work another 8 years in the operation and&nbsp;maintenance field of large dams and reservoirs in the country.</p><p>For the latter part of my career, about 20 years, I worked in the engineering&nbsp;department of a government bank, during which I mainly engaged in procurement&nbsp;and contract administration activities.&nbsp;Additionally, during my free time, I shared my knowledge and experience with&nbsp;younger generations who wish to enter the construction field.&nbsp;My goal is not just to create a blog, but to spread my knowledge and experience for&nbsp;a better future with enhanced knowledge in engineering and technology, to create&nbsp;the society we live in an even better and safer place.</p>\n<p></p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-07 14:10:39', '2021-06-07 08:40:39', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1432', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1430, 1, '2021-06-07 14:10:38', '2021-06-07 08:40:38', '<h2>About</h2>		\n										<img width=\"498\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Ranjith Ekanayake\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-498x1024.jpeg 498w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-146x300.jpeg 146w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52-300x617.jpeg 300w, https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/WhatsApp-Image-2021-01-14-at-20.57.52.jpeg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\" />											\n		<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. </p><p> </p>', 'About us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1265-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-07 14:10:38', '2021-06-07 08:40:38', '', 1265, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1430', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1425, 1, '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2021-01-15 15:18:29', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1425', '', '', '2024-06-26 19:37:34', '2024-06-26 14:07:34', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1425/', 74, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1459, 1, '2021-06-19 18:44:31', '2021-06-19 13:14:31', '<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the present fast-paced highly industrialized age, many of the products in the market are increasingly being mass-produced in factories by machines. However, a building still remains as one of the few handcrafted products put together piece by piece by skilled and unskilled workers.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost. Therefore, the labour component is considered a very important area in a construction project.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building is a very complex product, made up of many different systems, such as the structural system, exterior enclosure system, interior finishes, plumbing, and HVAC system, etc. These systems can be separated into many other subsystems and sub-sub systems. For example, beam concreting can be divided into the formwork, reinforcements, and concreting. Again, reinforcement can be sub-sub divided into cutting, bending, placing in place, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building construction project can be divided into many work packages. A work package can then be allocated to and accomplished by an individual worker or a crew. A crew can be described as a group of workers. These workers may be from the same trade or may be from a combination of many different trades. Different tasks involved in the construction of a building need many types of craftsmen from various trades.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Labor’s production rates or Productivity</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A production rate is defined as the number of units of work completed by a worker in a definite time period. Production rates may specify in the form of time in man-hours or man-days necessary to produce a specified number of units of work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The time that a labor will consume in performing a unit of work varies between labors, between projects, with climatic conditions, job supervision, complexities of the operation, and due to many other factors. For example, it may require more time for erecting a shutter for stairs than for a beam.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the production rate is substituted by the term productivity. Productivity is the ratio between input and the respective output.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In construction, the labour input can be expressed as the work hours of a worker or a crew. For example, it may be 4 hours of bricklaying gang.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The output can be stated as the amount of work completed. For instance, it may be expressed as laying 500 bricks or may be expressed in square meters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, construction productivity is defined as the quantity of work produced in a particular time period by a worker or a specific crew. In other words, it is the quantity of construction output units produced in a given amount of time or a unit time.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for productivity is presented as follows;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Construction productivity </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work produced / time duration</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>If a bricklaying crew can lay 560 bricks in 8 hours, then, the related construction productivity is 560 bricks divided by 8 hours, which are 70 bricks per bricklaying crew per hour.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>With compared to most of the other items associated with monetary factors, labour productivity is highly variable. It can fluctuate widely. For accurate estimation, an estimator or a quantity surveyor must have good historical records of the output of his workers, require a lot of experience, in addition to theoretical knowledge. </em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Productivity sources</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity rates can also be determined from already published sources from different institutions, such as Construction Cost Data.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sample norms of some common work items are given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Description</strong></td><td><strong>Unit</strong></td><td><strong>Quantity</strong></td><td><strong>Skilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Unskilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Cement (50 kg bags)</strong></td><td><strong>Sand (m</strong><strong><sup>3</sup></strong><strong>)</strong></td><td><strong>Metal (20 mm)</strong></td><td><strong>Bricks (nr)</strong></td><td><strong>Small plants (days)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>2.55</td><td>6.20</td><td>7.00</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.97</td><td>-</td><td>0.83</td></tr><tr><td>Brick Work</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>1.10</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.40</td><td>-</td><td>540</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cement plaster</td><td>m<sup>2</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.02</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption><em>However, the above norms do not provide the crew types associated with a particular work item.</em></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity must be presented in labor hours. Then, the record can be normalized.&nbsp; Therefore, it is not subjected to the variability in project locations and prevailing wage rates. In this way, unit labor costs for the contractor’s own operating area can be easily developed by multiplying local wage rates (which includes all other benefits) by the productivity rate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A contractor determines that the unit productivity for painting a wall is 0.55 hours per square meter. If the wage rate including other benefits is LKR 250 per hour, the unit labour cost become (0.55 hours per square meter x LKR 250 per hour) = LKR 137.50 per square meter.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Estimating work duration</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determining the total work duration for an activity or a task involves knowledge of the quantity of work required for the task and the production rate for the specific crew that will be performing the work. The quantity of work related to the material quantity can be determined by the quantity take-off. A better approach to the estimation of activity time duration is to maintain historical records of the particular activity, and rely on the average duration from the experience in making new duration estimates. Since the scope of activities is unlikely to be identical between different projects, unit production rates are typically employed for this purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duration of an activity may be estimated as shown below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Work duration </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work / number of crews × production rate</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Find the duration of interior and exterior painting activities with quantities of 550 m<sup>2</sup> &amp; 406 m<sup>2</sup> respectively, using crews of 11 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours &amp; 14 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours for the interior &amp; exterior painting activities respectively.&nbsp; (Assume the same crew is used for both works).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>Interior painting duration = 550 / 11 = 50 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Exterior painting duration = 406 / 14 = 29 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total work hours = 79 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, the quantity of work to be completed can be determined from the architectural drawings of the project. The number of crews working is decided by the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor depending on resources available as well as the work programme.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many cases, the number or amount of resources applied to particular activity may be modified after considering the resulting project plan and work schedule. Historical records in the particular construction organization can also provide data for the estimation of productivities.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having defined the duration of a given work means that the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor has already defined the number of resources that will be employed in a particular work. After knowing the activity time duration and resources to be employed, it is easy to estimate the direct cost of the activity. Then, the three elements of an activity, the time duration, type of resources, and cost of procuring resources for the activity form the construction method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>The Basic principle for estimating labor costs</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor costs in construction are determined by two factors: <strong><em>monetary &amp;</em></strong> <strong><em>productivity</em></strong>. The monetary factor is related to hourly wage rates plus other benefits. Estimating the constituents of the monetary factor is more difficult in construction than in other industries. This is due to the different types of work and skills involved in construction. Although the computational process of this component seems complex &amp; tedious, it is only a matter of accounting as the needed numbers (such as wage rates, fringe benefits, etc.) are readily available.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method for calculating the total cost of labor is relatively simple. It requires the knowledge of the total work hours or labor hours needed to perform all the tasks &amp; then applying the corresponding wage rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating the total cost of labor is as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Total cost of labor </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>total work hour × wage rate </em></strong><strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A welder works 10 hrs/day, 6 days/week. A basic salary of LKR 350 / hr is paid for all straight-time work, 8 hrs/day, 5 days/week. An overtime rate of one time &amp; one-half is paid for all hours over 8 hrs/day, Monday through Friday, &amp; double time is paid for all Saturday work. The meal allowance is LKR 200 per day. Calculate the average hourly cost to employ the welder.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em>:</em><em> </em><em></em>Actual hours = 10 × 6 = 60 hrs&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pay hours = weekly straight time + weekly overtime + Saturday overtime&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= (8 x 5 × 1) + (2 x 1.5 x 5) + (10 × 2)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= 75 hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Average hourly pay = (75/60) × LKR 350 = LKR 437.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Meal allowance &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; = (LKR 200 x 6) / 60 = LKR 20 / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the average hourly cost = LKR (437.50 + 20) / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 457.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Assume that a crew for a work item includes three bricklayers (masons) &amp; two helpers. The crew works for three days (8 hrs/day) to complete the work package. The wage rate for each bricklayer is LKR 337.50 / hr &amp; each helper is LKR 260.00 / hr. Find the total cost of the crew for the work item.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total cost = (3 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 337.50</em>) + (2 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 260.00</em>)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 36,780&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the productivity of a specific work crew is stated in man-hours/unit, and not in units/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hours/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>More Examples</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>If the daily production rate for a crew that works in an activity is 175 units/day and the total crew cost per day is LKR 18,000.00. The material needed for daily work is 4.5 units at LKR 10,000.00 /unit.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a. Calculate the time and cost it takes the crew to finish 1400 units.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b. Calculate the total unit cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Consider an eight hour work day).</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em><em> </em><em>Duration</em><em> </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Quantity / (production per unit time x number of crews)&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>1400 / (175 x 1)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em>Cost (labour cost)</em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Duration (units of time) x Crew cost per unit of time&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days x LKR 18,000 per day</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Total direct cost </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000 + (4.5 units of material x LKR 10,000 per day x</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>8 days)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR (144,000 + 360,000)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 504,000</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Unit cost </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>total cost / quantity&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 504,000.00 / 1400&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 360.00 / unit&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the productivity of a specific crew expressed in man-hours per unit, not in units per day. For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hour/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way, it can be applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>What is the duration in days to install 600 square meters of walls shuttering if:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Crew of 2 carpenters is used with output of 200 square meters/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Productivity is measured as 0.08 man-hour/square meter. Number of carpenters = 3, and number of working hours/day = 8 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em> <em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 / 200 </em><em></em><em>= </em><em>3 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Total man-hours needed </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 × 0.08 </em><em></em><em>= 48 man-hours&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(if one man used)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>&nbsp;</em><em> </em><em></em><em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>48 / 8 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= 6 days (if one man used)&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em>Duration using 3 men </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>6 / 3 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em>2 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example - </strong>(use of several resources)&nbsp; - What is the duration of an excavation activity with a quantity of 3000 m<sup>3</sup> using an excavation crew consists of an excavator with a production rate of 200 m<sup>3</sup>/day, a loader of 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day and 3-trucks of 150 m<sup>3</sup>/day? Comment on this crew formation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Using the excavator: Duration = 3000 / 200 = 15 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the loader: Duration = 3000 / 250 = 12 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the 3-trucks: Duration = 3000 / 150 = 20 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The activity duration is governed by the lowest production rate = 20 days.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This is an unbalanced crew where the loader is not working with full capacity; the production rate of this crew could be adjusted by increasing the number of trucks to 4 of 5 trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Then, for a balanced mix of resources, use 1 loader, 1 excavator and 4-trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Accordingly, the activity duration = 3000 / 200 = </em><em>15 days</em><em>.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Labor productivity - Unit rate analysis', 'The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1440-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-19 18:44:31', '2021-06-19 13:14:31', '', 1440, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1459', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1458, 1, '2021-06-19 12:27:28', '2021-06-19 06:57:28', '<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Introduction</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the present fast-paced highly industrialized age, many of the products in the market are increasingly being mass-produced in factories by machines. However, a building still remains as one of the few handcrafted products put together piece by piece by skilled and unskilled workers.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost. Therefore, the labour component is considered a very important area in a construction project.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building is a very complex product, made up of many different systems, such as the structural system, exterior enclosure system, interior finishes, plumbing, and HVAC system, etc. These systems can be separated into many other subsystems and sub-sub systems. For example, beam concreting can be divided into the formwork, reinforcements, and concreting. Again, reinforcement can be sub-sub divided into cutting, bending, placing in place, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A building construction project can be divided into many work packages. A work package can then be allocated to and accomplished by an individual worker or a crew. A crew can be described as a group of workers. These workers may be from the same trade or may be from a combination of many different trades. Different tasks involved in the construction of a building need many types of craftsmen from various trades.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Labor’s production rates or Productivity</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A production rate is defined as the number of units of work completed by a worker in a definite time period. Production rates may specify in the form of time in man-hours or man-days necessary to produce a specified number of units of work.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The time that a labor will consume in performing a unit of work varies between labors, between projects, with climatic conditions, job supervision, complexities of the operation, and due to many other factors. For example, it may require more time for erecting a shutter for stairs than for a beam.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the production rate is substituted by the term productivity. Productivity is the ratio between input and the respective output.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In construction, the labour input can be expressed as the work hours of a worker or a crew. For example, it may be 4 hours of bricklaying gang.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The output can be stated as the amount of work completed. For instance, it may be expressed as laying 500 bricks or may be expressed in square meters.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, construction productivity is defined as the quantity of work produced in a particular time period by a worker or a specific crew. In other words, it is the quantity of construction output units produced in a given amount of time or a unit time.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for productivity is presented as follows;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Construction productivity </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work produced / time duration</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>If a bricklaying crew can lay 560 bricks in 8 hours, then, the related construction productivity is 560 bricks divided by 8 hours, which are 70 bricks per bricklaying crew per hour.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>With compared to most of the other items associated with monetary factors, labour productivity is highly variable. It can fluctuate wildly. For accurate estimation, an estimator or a quantity surveyor must have good historical records of the output of his workers, require a lot of experience, in addition to theoretical knowledge.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Productivity sources</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity rates can also be determined from already published sources from different institutions, such as Construction Cost Data.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sample norms of some common work items are given below;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Description</strong></td><td><strong>Unit</strong></td><td><strong>Quantity</strong></td><td><strong>Skilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Unskilled labour (days)</strong></td><td><strong>Cement (50 kg bags)</strong></td><td><strong>Sand (m</strong><strong><sup>3</sup></strong><strong>)</strong></td><td><strong>Metal (20 mm)</strong></td><td><strong>Bricks (nr)</strong></td><td><strong>Small plants (days)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>2.55</td><td>6.20</td><td>7.00</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.97</td><td>-</td><td>0.83</td></tr><tr><td>Brick Work</td><td>m<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>1.10</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.40</td><td>-</td><td>540</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Cement plaster</td><td>m<sup>2</sup></td><td>1.00</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.02</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption><em>However, the above norms do not provide the crew types associated with a particular work item.</em></figcaption></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Productivity must be presented in labor hours. Then, the record can be normalized.&nbsp; Therefore, it is not subjected to the variability in project locations and prevailing wage rates. In this way, unit labor costs for the contractor’s own operating area can be easily developed by multiplying local wage rates (which includes all other benefits) by the productivity rate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A contractor determines that the unit productivity for painting a wall is 0.55 hours per square meter. If the wage rate including other benefits is LKR 250 per hour, the unit labour cost become (0.55 hours per square meter x LKR 250 per hour) = LKR 137.50 per square meter.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Estimating work duration</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Determining the total work duration for an activity or a task involves knowledge of the quantity of work required for the task and the production rate for the specific crew that will be performing the work. The quantity of work related to the material quantity can be determined by the quantity take-off. A better approach to the estimation of activity time duration is to maintain historical records of the particular activity, and rely on the average duration from the experience in making new duration estimates. Since the scope of activities is unlikely to be identical between different projects, unit production rates are typically employed for this purpose.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The duration of an activity may be estimated as shown below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Work duration </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>quantity of work / number of crews × production rate</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Find the duration of interior and exterior painting activities with quantities of 550 m<sup>2</sup> &amp; 406 m<sup>2</sup> respectively, using crews of 11 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours &amp; 14 m<sup>2 </sup>/ hours for the interior &amp; exterior painting activities respectively.&nbsp; (Assume the same crew is used for both works).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>Interior painting duration = 550 / 11 = 50 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Exterior painting duration = 406 / 14 = 29 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total work hours = 79 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, the quantity of work to be completed can be determined from the architectural drawings of the project. The number of crews working is decided by the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor depending on resources available as well as the work programme.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In many cases, the number or amount of resources applied to particular activity may be modified after considering the resulting project plan and work schedule. Historical records in the particular construction organization can also provide data for the estimation of productivities.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Having defined the duration of a given work means that the planner/estimator or the quantity surveyor has already defined the number of resources that will be employed in a particular work. After knowing the activity time duration and resources to be employed, it is easy to estimate the direct cost of the activity. Then, the three elements of an activity, the time duration, type of resources, and cost of procuring resources for the activity form the construction method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>The Basic principle for estimating labor costs</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labor costs in construction are determined by two factors: <strong><em>monetary &amp;</em></strong> <strong><em>productivity</em></strong>. The monetary factor is related to hourly wage rates plus other benefits. Estimating the constituents of the monetary factor is more difficult in construction than in other industries. This is due to the different types of work and skills involved in construction. Although the computational process of this component seems complex &amp; tedious, it is only a matter of accounting as the needed numbers (such as wage rates, fringe benefits, etc.) are readily available.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The method for calculating the total cost of labor is relatively simple. It requires the knowledge of the total work hours or labor hours needed to perform all the tasks &amp; then applying the corresponding wage rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The formula for calculating the total cost of labor is as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Total cost of labor </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>= </em></strong><strong><em></em></strong><strong><em>total work hour × wage rate </em></strong><strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> – </em>A welder works 10 hrs/day, 6 days/week. A basic salary of LKR 350 / hr is paid for all straight-time work, 8 hrs/day, 5 days/week. An overtime rate of one time &amp; one-half is paid for all hours over 8 hrs/day, Monday through Friday, &amp; double time is paid for all Saturday work. The meal allowance is LKR 200 per day. Calculate the average hourly cost to employ the welder.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em>:</em><em> </em><em></em>Actual hours = 10 × 6 = 60 hrs&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pay hours = weekly straight time + weekly overtime + Saturday overtime&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= (8 x 5 × 1) + (2 x 1.5 x 5) + (10 × 2)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= 75 hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Average hourly pay = (75/60) × LKR 350 = LKR 437.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Meal allowance &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; = (LKR 200 x 6) / 60 = LKR 20 / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the average hourly cost = LKR (437.50 + 20) / hr</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 457.50 / hr&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> - </em>Assume that a crew for a work item includes three bricklayers (masons) &amp; two helpers. The crew works for three days (8 hrs/day) to complete the work package. The wage rate for each bricklayer is LKR 337.50 / hr &amp; each helper is LKR 260.00 / hr. Find the total cost of the crew for the work item.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Total cost = (3 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 337.50</em>) + (2 <em>× </em>3 <em>× </em>8 <em>× 260.00</em>)&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>= LKR 36,780&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes, the productivity of a specific work crew is stated in man-hours/unit, and not in units/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hours/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>More Examples</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>If the daily production rate for a crew that works in an activity is 175 units/day and the total crew cost per day is LKR 18,000.00. The material needed for daily work is 4.5 units at LKR 10,000.00 /unit.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a. Calculate the time and cost it takes the crew to finish 1400 units.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b. Calculate the total unit cost.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>(<em>Consider an eight hour work day).</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em><em> </em><em>Duration</em><em> </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Quantity / (production per unit time x number of crews)&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>1400 / (175 x 1)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em>Cost (labour cost)</em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>Duration (units of time) x Crew cost per unit of time&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>8 days x LKR 18,000 per day</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Total direct cost </em><em></em><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 144,000 + (4.5 units of material x LKR 10,000 per day x</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>8 days)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR (144,000 + 360,000)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>=</em><em> </em><em>LKR 504,000</em><em>&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Unit cost </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>total cost / quantity&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 504,000.00 / 1400&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>= </em><em></em><em>LKR 360.00 / unit&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sometimes the productivity of a specific crew expressed in man-hours per unit, not in units per day. For example, if the productivity is said to be 0.5 Man-hour/cubic meters, this means how long it will take one labor to construct one unit. This way, it can be applied to any crew formation and work hours.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>What is the duration in days to install 600 square meters of walls shuttering if:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) Crew of 2 carpenters is used with output of 200 square meters/day.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) Productivity is measured as 0.08 man-hour/square meter. Number of carpenters = 3, and number of working hours/day = 8 hours&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>a)</em> <em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 / 200 </em><em></em><em>= </em><em>3 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>b)</em><em> </em><em>Total man-hours needed </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>600 × 0.08 </em><em></em><em>= 48 man-hours&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(if one man used)</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>&nbsp;</em><em> </em><em></em><em>Duration </em><em></em><em> </em><em></em><em>= </em><em></em><em>48 / 8 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= 6 days (if one man used)&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em></em><em> </em><em>Duration using 3 men </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em></em><em>6 / 3 </em><em></em><em> </em><em>= </em><em>2 days&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Example - </strong>(use of several resources)&nbsp; - What is the duration of an excavation activity with a quantity of 3000 m<sup>3</sup> using an excavation crew consists of an excavator with a production rate of 200 m<sup>3</sup>/day, a loader of 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day and 3-trucks of 150 m<sup>3</sup>/day? Comment on this crew formation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong><em>&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- Using the excavator: Duration = 3000 / 200 = 15 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the loader: Duration = 3000 / 250 = 12 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- using the 3-trucks: Duration = 3000 / 150 = 20 days&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The activity duration is governed by the lowest production rate = 20 days.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>This is an unbalanced crew where the loader is not working with full capacity; the production rate of this crew could be adjusted by increasing the number of trucks to 4 of 5 trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Then, for a balanced mix of resources, use 1 loader, 1 excavator and 4-trucks.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Accordingly, the activity duration = 3000 / 200 = </em><em>15 days</em><em>.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Labor productivity - Unit rate analysis', 'The construction industry, to which these workers belong, is one of the most non-automated or labor-intensive industries in the world. The labor cost element of a building construction project may vary from 30 to 50%, and sometimes can be as high as 60% of the total construction cost', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1440-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-19 12:27:28', '2021-06-19 06:57:28', '', 1440, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1458', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1460, 1, '2021-06-20 18:58:48', '2021-06-20 13:28:48', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc. Also, it is important to carry out a visit to the proposed site before estimating.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For earthwork estimates, the soil report and relevant geotechnical information about the soil and other subsurface conditions are usually given with the bid documents. However, the estimator or the quantity surveyor can use other sources which may be useful in developing an accurate estimate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Swell and compaction factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to know the physical properties of soil for accurate estimation involving the cost of excavating and hauling earth. It is because of the change of volume such as swelling of soil during the construction operations.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural state. Then, it is placed in a hauling unit and transported to the disposal area, where it is distributed and compacted. For example, 01 m<sup>3</sup> of soil that is excavated from the ground may occupy 1.25 m<sup>3 </sup>after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit. After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 m<sup>3</sup>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The soil to be excavated, in its undisturbed condition, is called bank measure. Similarly, after being compacted in place, the volume of the filled embankment or the pit is called the bank measure. Also, any additional requirements such as excavation supports should be added to the cost estimation of an excavation operation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Calculating truck requirements</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In excavation operations, the estimator or the quantity surveyor has to decide the optimum number of trucks required to transport excavated materials.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple formula can be used for these calculations based on the idea that it is desirable to have sufficient trucking capacity to ensure that the excavation equipment can operate continuously without having idling time waiting for trucks.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, 03 trucks will be required if it takes 10 minutes to load a truck and 20 minutes for that truck to unload and return for another load. Then, when the first truck is away, the two other trucks can be loaded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the number of trucks required can be calculated as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1461,\"width\":716,\"height\":170,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1461\" width=\"716\" height=\"170\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The number of trucks obtained from Eq. 1 should always be rounded up, no matter how small the decimal. It is better to have more rather than fewer trucks so that the excavator is always kept occupied.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Waste factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When estimating the material required for any work item, it is necessary to add a portion as the wastage of material used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantities of material taken off are the unadjusted net amounts calculated from the drawings. Allowance for waste and spillage of this material can be made by increasing the take-off quantities or by increasing the price by a percentage factor considered reasonable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The values of waste factors usually lie between 01 and 10 percent for different materials.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the equipment and labor prices per m<sup>3</sup> to excavate 3,000 m<sup>3</sup> of a trench using 0.75 m<sup>3</sup> backhoe costing LKR&nbsp; 6,700/day (day = 8 hrs), plus LKR 40,000 for transportation and set up charges. The expected output is 60 m<sup>3</sup>/hr with an operator and 0.5 labor at wages of LKR 400/hr and LKR 300/hr, respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1462,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1462\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the price of obtaining gravel from a pit located 16km from the work site, where the unit price is LKR 25/m<sup>3</sup>, using a loader with a rate of 50m<sup>3</sup>/hr (bank measure) and 12m<sup>3</sup> trucks to transport the gravel. The hire charges for the loader and trucks are LKR 4,500/day and LKR 3,000/day respectively. The labor crew consists of one equipment operator at LKR 400/hr, two laborers at LKR 300/hr, and a truck driver at LKR 350/hr. The average speed of the dump is 20km/hr. The swell factor for gravel is 12%.  Offloading time for trucks are 5 minutes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First calculating the required number of trucks to have a balanced crew;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1463,\"width\":596,\"height\":244,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1463\" width=\"596\" height=\"244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondly calculating the gravel supply price;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1464,\"width\":568,\"height\":298,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1464\" width=\"568\" height=\"298\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>It is required to determine the unit price for mass concrete given the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mass concrete quantity = 1,080 m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>01 m<sup>3 </sup>of mass concrete comprises 250 kg cement; 0.55 m<sup>3</sup> of sand (fine aggregate) and 1.02 m<sup>3 </sup>of 37.5 mm metal (coarse aggregates).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The prices of the materials are LKR 22,000/M.ton; LKR 7,500/m<sup>3</sup> and LKR 3,500/m<sup>3</sup> for cement, sand, and 37.5 mm metal respectively. Assume 10% wastage for all materials. The details of the crew used are shown in the table below. Assume overheads and markup 20%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Crew item</strong></td><td><strong>Number employed</strong></td><td><strong>Production rate</strong></td><td><strong>Unit rates</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Concrete pump</td><td>1</td><td>30 m<sup>3</sup>/hr</td><td>LKR 1,500/hr</td></tr><tr><td>Concrete mixer</td><td>3</td><td>9 m<sup>3</sup>/hr/machine</td><td>LKR 1,000/hr/machine</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrator</td><td>2</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/one</td></tr><tr><td>Labour</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/person</td></tr><tr><td>Foreman</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 400/hr/person</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1465,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1465\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1466,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1466\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1467,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1467\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Estimating Activity cost', 'Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'estimating-activity-cost', '', '', '2021-06-20 19:25:44', '2021-06-20 13:55:44', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1460', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1467, 1, '2021-06-20 18:51:50', '2021-06-20 13:21:50', '', 'image-6', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-6', '', '', '2021-06-20 18:51:50', '2021-06-20 13:21:50', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1468, 1, '2021-06-20 18:51:59', '2021-06-20 13:21:59', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc. Also, it is important to carry out a visit to the proposed site before estimating.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For earthwork estimates, the soil report and relevant geotechnical information about the soil and other subsurface conditions are usually given with the bid documents. However, the estimator or the quantity surveyor can use other sources which may be useful in developing an accurate estimate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Swell and compaction factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to know the physical properties of soil for accurate estimation involving the cost of excavating and hauling earth. It is because of the change of volume such as swelling of soil during the construction operations.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural state. Then, it is placed in a hauling unit and transported to the disposal area, where it is distributed and compacted. For example, 01 m<sup>3</sup> of soil that is excavated from the ground may occupy 1.25 m<sup>3 </sup>after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit. After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 m<sup>3</sup>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The soil to be excavated, in its undisturbed condition, is called bank measure. Similarly, after being compacted in place, the volume of the filled embankment or the pit is called the bank measure. Also, any additional requirements such as excavation supports should be added to the cost estimation of an excavation operation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Calculating truck requirements</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In excavation operations, the estimator or the quantity surveyor has to decide the optimum number of trucks required to transport excavated materials.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple formula can be used for these calculations based on the idea that it is desirable to have sufficient trucking capacity to ensure that the excavation equipment can operate continuously without having idling time waiting for trucks.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, 03 trucks will be required if it takes 10 minutes to load a truck and 20 minutes for that truck to unload and return for another load. Then, when the first truck is away, the two other trucks can be loaded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the number of trucks required can be calculated as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1461,\"width\":716,\"height\":170,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1461\" width=\"716\" height=\"170\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The number of trucks obtained from Eq. 1 should always be rounded up, no matter how small the decimal. It is better to have more rather than fewer trucks so that the excavator is always kept occupied.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Waste factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When estimating the material required for any work item, it is necessary to add a portion as the wastage of material used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantities of material taken off are the unadjusted net amounts calculated from the drawings. Allowance for waste and spillage of this material can be made by increasing the take-off quantities or by increasing the price by a percentage factor considered reasonable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The values of waste factors usually lie between 01 and 10 percent for different materials.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the equipment and labor prices per m<sup>3</sup> to excavate 3,000 m<sup>3</sup> of a trench using 0.75 m<sup>3</sup> backhoe costing LKR&nbsp; 6,700/day (day = 8 hrs), plus LKR 40,000 for transportation and set up charges. The expected output is 60 m<sup>3</sup>/hr with an operator and 0.5 labor at wages of LKR 400/hr and LKR 300/hr, respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1462,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1462\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the price of obtaining gravel from a pit located 16km from the work site, where the unit price is LKR 25/m<sup>3</sup>, using a loader with a rate of 50m<sup>3</sup>/hr (bank measure) and 12m<sup>3</sup> trucks to transport the gravel. The loader and trucks are priced at rates of LKR 4,500/day and LKR 3,000/day respectively. The labor crew consists of one equipment operator at LKR 400/hr, two laborers at LKR 300/hr, and a truck driver at LKR 350/hr. The average speed of the dump is 20km/hr. The gravel has a swell factor of 12% and 5 minutes are required to off-load the truck.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First calculating the required number of trucks to have a balanced crew;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1463,\"width\":596,\"height\":244,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1463\" width=\"596\" height=\"244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondly calculating the gravel supply price;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1464,\"width\":568,\"height\":298,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1464\" width=\"568\" height=\"298\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>It is required to determine the unit price for mass concrete given the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mass concrete quantity = 1,080 m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>01 m<sup>3 </sup>of mass concrete comprises 250 kg cement; 0.55 m<sup>3</sup> of sand (fine aggregate) and 1.02 m<sup>3 </sup>of 37.5 mm metal (coarse aggregates).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The prices of the materials are LKR 22,000/M.ton; LKR 7,500/m<sup>3</sup> and LKR 3,500/m<sup>3</sup> for cement, sand, and 37.5 mm metal respectively. Assume 10% wastage for all materials. The details of the crew used are shown in the table below. Assume overheads and markup 20%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Crew item</strong></td><td><strong>Number employed</strong></td><td><strong>Production rate</strong></td><td><strong>Unit rates</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Concrete pump</td><td>1</td><td>30 m<sup>3</sup>/hr</td><td>LKR 1,500/hr</td></tr><tr><td>Concrete mixer</td><td>3</td><td>9 m<sup>3</sup>/hr/machine</td><td>LKR 1,000/hr/machine</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrator</td><td>2</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/one</td></tr><tr><td>Labour</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/person</td></tr><tr><td>Foreman</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 400/hr/person</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1465,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1465\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1466,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1466\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1467,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1467\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Estimating Activity cost', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1460-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-20 18:51:59', '2021-06-20 13:21:59', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1468', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1462, 1, '2021-06-20 18:46:57', '2021-06-20 13:16:57', '', 'image-1', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-1', '', '', '2021-06-20 18:46:57', '2021-06-20 13:16:57', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
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(1469, 1, '2021-06-20 18:55:55', '2021-06-20 13:25:55', '', 'Quality of mixing water for Concrete', 'Quality of mixing water for Concrete', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'truck-cement-concrete-16021', '', '', '2023-05-08 23:55:04', '2023-05-08 18:25:04', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/truck-cement-concrete-16021.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1470, 1, '2021-06-20 18:58:48', '2021-06-20 13:28:48', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc. Also, it is important to carry out a visit to the proposed site before estimating.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For earthwork estimates, the soil report and relevant geotechnical information about the soil and other subsurface conditions are usually given with the bid documents. However, the estimator or the quantity surveyor can use other sources which may be useful in developing an accurate estimate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Swell and compaction factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to know the physical properties of soil for accurate estimation involving the cost of excavating and hauling earth. It is because of the change of volume such as swelling of soil during the construction operations.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural state. Then, it is placed in a hauling unit and transported to the disposal area, where it is distributed and compacted. For example, 01 m<sup>3</sup> of soil that is excavated from the ground may occupy 1.25 m<sup>3 </sup>after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit. After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 m<sup>3</sup>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The soil to be excavated, in its undisturbed condition, is called bank measure. Similarly, after being compacted in place, the volume of the filled embankment or the pit is called the bank measure. Also, any additional requirements such as excavation supports should be added to the cost estimation of an excavation operation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Calculating truck requirements</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In excavation operations, the estimator or the quantity surveyor has to decide the optimum number of trucks required to transport excavated materials.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple formula can be used for these calculations based on the idea that it is desirable to have sufficient trucking capacity to ensure that the excavation equipment can operate continuously without having idling time waiting for trucks.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, 03 trucks will be required if it takes 10 minutes to load a truck and 20 minutes for that truck to unload and return for another load. Then, when the first truck is away, the two other trucks can be loaded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the number of trucks required can be calculated as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1461,\"width\":716,\"height\":170,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1461\" width=\"716\" height=\"170\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The number of trucks obtained from Eq. 1 should always be rounded up, no matter how small the decimal. It is better to have more rather than fewer trucks so that the excavator is always kept occupied.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Waste factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When estimating the material required for any work item, it is necessary to add a portion as the wastage of material used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantities of material taken off are the unadjusted net amounts calculated from the drawings. Allowance for waste and spillage of this material can be made by increasing the take-off quantities or by increasing the price by a percentage factor considered reasonable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The values of waste factors usually lie between 01 and 10 percent for different materials.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the equipment and labor prices per m<sup>3</sup> to excavate 3,000 m<sup>3</sup> of a trench using 0.75 m<sup>3</sup> backhoe costing LKR&nbsp; 6,700/day (day = 8 hrs), plus LKR 40,000 for transportation and set up charges. The expected output is 60 m<sup>3</sup>/hr with an operator and 0.5 labor at wages of LKR 400/hr and LKR 300/hr, respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1462,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1462\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the price of obtaining gravel from a pit located 16km from the work site, where the unit price is LKR 25/m<sup>3</sup>, using a loader with a rate of 50m<sup>3</sup>/hr (bank measure) and 12m<sup>3</sup> trucks to transport the gravel. The loader and trucks are priced at rates of LKR 4,500/day and LKR 3,000/day respectively. The labor crew consists of one equipment operator at LKR 400/hr, two laborers at LKR 300/hr, and a truck driver at LKR 350/hr. The average speed of the dump is 20km/hr. The gravel has a swell factor of 12% and 5 minutes are required to off-load the truck.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First calculating the required number of trucks to have a balanced crew;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1463,\"width\":596,\"height\":244,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1463\" width=\"596\" height=\"244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondly calculating the gravel supply price;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1464,\"width\":568,\"height\":298,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1464\" width=\"568\" height=\"298\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>It is required to determine the unit price for mass concrete given the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mass concrete quantity = 1,080 m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>01 m<sup>3 </sup>of mass concrete comprises 250 kg cement; 0.55 m<sup>3</sup> of sand (fine aggregate) and 1.02 m<sup>3 </sup>of 37.5 mm metal (coarse aggregates).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The prices of the materials are LKR 22,000/M.ton; LKR 7,500/m<sup>3</sup> and LKR 3,500/m<sup>3</sup> for cement, sand, and 37.5 mm metal respectively. Assume 10% wastage for all materials. The details of the crew used are shown in the table below. Assume overheads and markup 20%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Crew item</strong></td><td><strong>Number employed</strong></td><td><strong>Production rate</strong></td><td><strong>Unit rates</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Concrete pump</td><td>1</td><td>30 m<sup>3</sup>/hr</td><td>LKR 1,500/hr</td></tr><tr><td>Concrete mixer</td><td>3</td><td>9 m<sup>3</sup>/hr/machine</td><td>LKR 1,000/hr/machine</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrator</td><td>2</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/one</td></tr><tr><td>Labour</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/person</td></tr><tr><td>Foreman</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 400/hr/person</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1465,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1465\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1466,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1466\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1467,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1467\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Estimating Activity cost', 'Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1460-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-20 18:58:48', '2021-06-20 13:28:48', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1470', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1496, 1, '2021-07-31 20:06:54', '2021-07-31 14:36:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The depreciation can be defined as <strong><em>“the decline in the market value of an asset”</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A machine depreciates (decline in value) because;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- it wears out during usage, and&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- no longer possible to perform its functions well as when it was new.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the type, machinery requires increased maintenance as they age. It reflects a slow and continuing failure of individual parts. In the meantime, the quality and the quantity of outputs may drop due to wear in component parts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another feature of depreciation is obsolescence. A machine is termed obsolete when the function it performs can be done in a better manner. A machine may be in excellent working condition, but may still be obsolete. For example, electronic machines, computers, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Value of an asset</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assets always have different values. Those can be termed as the initial value, book value, salvage value, and market value.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The initial value denotes the purchase price of an asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Salvage value is the expected selling price of the asset at the end of its useful life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The book value denotes the current value in the accounting systems. It is equal to the initial value of the asset minus all depreciation costs until the given time. Usually, the book value is calculated at the end of each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The market value is the value of the asset when it is sold in the free market. It is not necessary to be equal to the book value.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation is an accounting method that allows the recovery of the capital cost that was used to procure the asset.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Depreciation – Methods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three common methods for calculating depreciation expenses for financial accounting purposes:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>straight-line method,</li><li>sum-of-years digits method, and&nbsp;</li><li>sinking fund method.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each method involves the distribution of the amount to be depreciated through the recovery life of an asset logically.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each depreciation method gives a different amount of depreciation expense per period.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The straight-line method assumes linear depreciation. In this method, the depreciation cost is allocated equally over the useful life of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sum-of-years digits allocate a high rate of depreciation at the early age of an asset and decreasing rate at its latter stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The third, sinking fund method assumes a lower rate at the early life and a faster rate towards the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Straight-Line method&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest mostly used and best known is the straight-line depreciation method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this method, a constant depreciation cost is used throughout the life period of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To obtain the annual depreciation cost at any year, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, the total value to be depreciated (initial value, <em>P </em>– salvage value, <em>S</em>) is divided by the useful life in the number of years, <em>N</em>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1501,\"width\":320,\"height\":50,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1501\" width=\"320\" height=\"50\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 1</em></strong><em> - </em>If the purchase price of equipment is LKR 600,000.00 and its salvage value after 8 years is LKR 60,000.00, calculate the annual depreciation and the book value of the equipment each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:&nbsp;</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1502,\"width\":500,\"height\":116,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1502\" width=\"500\" height=\"116\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Note that the book value of the equipment equals its salvage value at the end of its useful life as shown in the Table below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1503,\"width\":336,\"height\":287,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1503\" width=\"336\" height=\"287\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sum-of-years digits method</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sum-of-years digit is another method used to allocate the cost of an asset minus its salvage value over its useful life. This method gives faster depreciation at the early stage of the life of an asset resulting in smaller charges as the asset nears the end of its estimated life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Every year, the depreciation cost is calculated as the remaining useful life at the start of the year divided by the sum of the years digits for the total useful life, with this ratio multiplied by the total amount of depreciation (<em>P – S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It means the depreciation is calculated as the percentage of the remaining life to the original life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For an asset with useful life <em>N</em>, to obtain the annual depreciation charge, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n</em>, can be calculated as follows:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1504,\"width\":497,\"height\":112,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1504\" width=\"497\" height=\"112\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> 2 – </em>Re-calculate the depreciation of the equipment in the above example using the sum-of-years digits method.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1505,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1505\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The calculations are shown in the following table.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1506,\"width\":555,\"height\":303,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1506\" width=\"555\" height=\"303\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sinking fund method&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method assumes a uniform series of end-of-payments are paid into an imaginary sinking fund at a given interest rate <strong><em>i</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of the annual payment is calculated so that the accumulated sum at the end of the asset life, and at the stated interest rate, will equal the value of the asset depreciated. (i.e., <em>P -S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of yearly depreciation is invested in a compound manner for the remaining period as a uniform series of payments using given below:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1507,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1507\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then the depreciation value, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n </em>is calculated using the following equation;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1508,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1508\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 3</em></strong><em> – </em>Re-calculate the above example using the sinking fund depreciation method, assuming that the interest rate is 10%.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1509,\"width\":515,\"height\":90,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1509\" width=\"515\" height=\"90\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, the annual depreciation could be calculated as follows:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1510,\"width\":520,\"height\":226,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1510\" width=\"520\" height=\"226\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The results of the depreciation calculations are summarized in Table below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1511,\"width\":380,\"height\":286,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1511\" width=\"380\" height=\"286\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After studying depreciation calculations from the above three methods, the depreciated amounts can be summarized as below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sum-of-year digits method shows an accelerated depreciation compared to the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sinking fund is a decelerated method compared with the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the straight-line method is the commonly applied and easier calculating method used in asset depreciation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Depreciation', 'The depreciation can be defined as “the decline in the market value of an asset”. 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(1512, 1, '2021-07-26 19:27:37', '2021-07-26 13:57:37', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The depreciation can be defined as <strong><em>“the decline in the market value of an asset”</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A machine depreciates (decline in value) because;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- it wears out during usage, and&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- no longer possible to perform its functions well as when it was new.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the type, machinery requires increased maintenance as they age. It reflects a slow and continuing failure of individual parts. In the meantime, the quality and the quantity of outputs may drop due to wear in component parts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another feature of depreciation is obsolescence. A machine is termed obsolete when the function it performs can be done in a better manner. A machine may be in excellent working condition, but may still be obsolete. For example, electronic machines, computers, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Value of an asset</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assets always have different values. Those can be termed as the initial value, book value, salvage value, and market value.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The initial value denotes the purchase price of an asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Salvage value is the expected selling price of the asset at the end of its useful life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The book value denotes the current value in the accounting systems. It is equal to the initial value of the asset minus all depreciation costs until the given time. Usually, the book value is calculated at the end of each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The market value is the value of the asset when it is sold in the free market. It is not necessary to be equal to the book value.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation is an accounting method that allows the recovery of the capital cost that was used to procure the asset.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Depreciation – Methods</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three common methods for calculating depreciation expenses for financial accounting purposes:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>straight-line method,</li><li>sum-of-years digits method, and&nbsp;</li><li>sinking fund method.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each method involves the distribution of the amount to be depreciated through the recovery life of an asset logically.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each depreciation method gives a different amount of depreciation expense per period.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The straight-line method assumes linear depreciation. In this method, the depreciation cost is allocated equally over the useful life of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sum-of-years digits allocate a high rate of depreciation at the early age of an asset and decreasing rate at its latter stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The third, sinking fund method assumes a lower rate at the early life and a faster rate towards the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Straight-Line method&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest mostly used and best known is the straight-line depreciation method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this method, a constant depreciation cost is used throughout the life period of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To obtain the annual depreciation cost at any year, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, the total value to be depreciated (initial value, <em>P </em>– salvage value, <em>S</em>) is divided by the useful life in the number of years, <em>N</em>. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1501,\"width\":320,\"height\":50,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1501\" width=\"320\" height=\"50\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 1</em></strong><em> - </em>If the purchase price of equipment is LKR 600,000.00 and its salvage value after 8 years is LKR 60,000.00, calculate the annual depreciation and the book value of the equipment each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1502,\"width\":500,\"height\":116,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1502\" width=\"500\" height=\"116\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Note that the book value of the equipment equals its salvage value at the end of its useful life as shown in the Table below. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1503,\"width\":336,\"height\":287,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1503\" width=\"336\" height=\"287\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Sum-of-years digits method</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sum-of-years digit is another method used to allocate the cost of an asset minus its salvage value over its useful life. This method gives faster depreciation at the early stage of the life of an asset resulting in smaller charges as the asset nears the end of its estimated life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Every year, the depreciation cost is calculated as the remaining useful life at the start of the year divided by the sum of the years digits for the total useful life, with this ratio multiplied by the total amount of depreciation (<em>P – S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It means the depreciation is calculated as the percentage of the remaining life to the original life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For an asset with useful life <em>N</em>, to obtain the annual depreciation charge, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n</em>, can be calculated as follows: </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1504,\"width\":497,\"height\":112,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1504\" width=\"497\" height=\"112\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> 2 – </em>Re-calculate the depreciation of the equipment in the above example using the sum-of-years digits method.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1505,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1505\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The calculations are shown in the following table.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1506,\"width\":555,\"height\":303,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1506\" width=\"555\" height=\"303\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Sinking fund method&nbsp;</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method assumes a uniform series of end-of-payments are paid into an imaginary sinking fund at a given interest rate <strong><em>i</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of the annual payment is calculated so that the accumulated sum at the end of the asset life, and at the stated interest rate, will equal the value of the asset depreciated. (i.e., <em>P -S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of yearly depreciation is invested in a compound manner for the remaining period as a uniform series of payments using given below: </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1507,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1507\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then the depreciation value, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n </em>is calculated using the following equation;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1508,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1508\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 3</em></strong><em> – </em>Re-calculate the above example using the sinking fund depreciation method, assuming that the interest rate is 10%. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1509,\"width\":515,\"height\":90,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1509\" width=\"515\" height=\"90\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, the annual depreciation could be calculated as follows: </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1510,\"width\":520,\"height\":226,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1510\" width=\"520\" height=\"226\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The results of the depreciation calculations are summarized in Table below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1511,\"width\":380,\"height\":286,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1511\" width=\"380\" height=\"286\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After studying depreciation calculations from the above three methods, the depreciated amounts can be summarized as below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sum-of-year digits method shows an accelerated depreciation compared to the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sinking fund is a decelerated method compared with the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the straight-line method is the commonly applied and easier calculating method used in asset depreciation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Depreciation', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1496-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-07-26 19:27:37', '2021-07-26 13:57:37', '', 1496, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1512', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1474, 1, '2021-06-20 19:22:19', '2021-06-20 13:52:19', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc. Also, it is important to carry out a visit to the proposed site before estimating.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For earthwork estimates, the soil report and relevant geotechnical information about the soil and other subsurface conditions are usually given with the bid documents. However, the estimator or the quantity surveyor can use other sources which may be useful in developing an accurate estimate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Swell and compaction factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to know the physical properties of soil for accurate estimation involving the cost of excavating and hauling earth. It is because of the change of volume such as swelling of soil during the construction operations.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural state. Then, it is placed in a hauling unit and transported to the disposal area, where it is distributed and compacted. For example, 01 m<sup>3</sup> of soil that is excavated from the ground may occupy 1.25 m<sup>3 </sup>after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit. After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 m<sup>3</sup>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The soil to be excavated, in its undisturbed condition, is called bank measure. Similarly, after being compacted in place, the volume of the filled embankment or the pit is called the bank measure. Also, any additional requirements such as excavation supports should be added to the cost estimation of an excavation operation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Calculating truck requirements</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In excavation operations, the estimator or the quantity surveyor has to decide the optimum number of trucks required to transport excavated materials.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple formula can be used for these calculations based on the idea that it is desirable to have sufficient trucking capacity to ensure that the excavation equipment can operate continuously without having idling time waiting for trucks.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, 03 trucks will be required if it takes 10 minutes to load a truck and 20 minutes for that truck to unload and return for another load. Then, when the first truck is away, the two other trucks can be loaded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the number of trucks required can be calculated as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1461,\"width\":716,\"height\":170,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1461\" width=\"716\" height=\"170\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The number of trucks obtained from Eq. 1 should always be rounded up, no matter how small the decimal. It is better to have more rather than fewer trucks so that the excavator is always kept occupied.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Waste factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When estimating the material required for any work item, it is necessary to add a portion as the wastage of material used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantities of material taken off are the unadjusted net amounts calculated from the drawings. Allowance for waste and spillage of this material can be made by increasing the take-off quantities or by increasing the price by a percentage factor considered reasonable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The values of waste factors usually lie between 01 and 10 percent for different materials.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the equipment and labor prices per m<sup>3</sup> to excavate 3,000 m<sup>3</sup> of a trench using 0.75 m<sup>3</sup> backhoe costing LKR&nbsp; 6,700/day (day = 8 hrs), plus LKR 40,000 for transportation and set up charges. The expected output is 60 m<sup>3</sup>/hr with an operator and 0.5 labor at wages of LKR 400/hr and LKR 300/hr, respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1462,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1462\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the price of obtaining gravel from a pit located 16km from the work site, where the unit price is LKR 25/m<sup>3</sup>, using a loader with a rate of 50m<sup>3</sup>/hr (bank measure) and 12m<sup>3</sup> trucks to transport the gravel. The hire charges for the loader and trucks are LKR 4,500/day and LKR 3,000/day respectively. The labor crew consists of one equipment operator at LKR 400/hr, two laborers at LKR 300/hr, and a truck driver at LKR 350/hr. The average speed of the dump is 20km/hr. The gravel has a swell factor of 12% and 5 minutes are required to off-load the truck.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First calculating the required number of trucks to have a balanced crew;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1463,\"width\":596,\"height\":244,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1463\" width=\"596\" height=\"244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondly calculating the gravel supply price;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1464,\"width\":568,\"height\":298,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1464\" width=\"568\" height=\"298\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>It is required to determine the unit price for mass concrete given the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mass concrete quantity = 1,080 m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>01 m<sup>3 </sup>of mass concrete comprises 250 kg cement; 0.55 m<sup>3</sup> of sand (fine aggregate) and 1.02 m<sup>3 </sup>of 37.5 mm metal (coarse aggregates).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The prices of the materials are LKR 22,000/M.ton; LKR 7,500/m<sup>3</sup> and LKR 3,500/m<sup>3</sup> for cement, sand, and 37.5 mm metal respectively. Assume 10% wastage for all materials. The details of the crew used are shown in the table below. Assume overheads and markup 20%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Crew item</strong></td><td><strong>Number employed</strong></td><td><strong>Production rate</strong></td><td><strong>Unit rates</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Concrete pump</td><td>1</td><td>30 m<sup>3</sup>/hr</td><td>LKR 1,500/hr</td></tr><tr><td>Concrete mixer</td><td>3</td><td>9 m<sup>3</sup>/hr/machine</td><td>LKR 1,000/hr/machine</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrator</td><td>2</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/one</td></tr><tr><td>Labour</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/person</td></tr><tr><td>Foreman</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 400/hr/person</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1465,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1465\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1466,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1466\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1467,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1467\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Estimating Activity cost', 'Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1460-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-20 19:22:19', '2021-06-20 13:52:19', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1474', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1476, 1, '2021-06-20 19:24:26', '2021-06-20 13:54:26', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc. Also, it is important to carry out a visit to the proposed site before estimating.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For earthwork estimates, the soil report and relevant geotechnical information about the soil and other subsurface conditions are usually given with the bid documents. However, the estimator or the quantity surveyor can use other sources which may be useful in developing an accurate estimate.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Swell and compaction factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is important to know the physical properties of soil for accurate estimation involving the cost of excavating and hauling earth. It is because of the change of volume such as swelling of soil during the construction operations.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>During an earthwork operation, the soil is excavated from its natural state. Then, it is placed in a hauling unit and transported to the disposal area, where it is distributed and compacted. For example, 01 m<sup>3</sup> of soil that is excavated from the ground may occupy 1.25 m<sup>3 </sup>after it is loosened and placed in the hauling unit. After the soil is compacted in place it may occupy 0.9 m<sup>3</sup>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The soil to be excavated, in its undisturbed condition, is called bank measure. Similarly, after being compacted in place, the volume of the filled embankment or the pit is called the bank measure. Also, any additional requirements such as excavation supports should be added to the cost estimation of an excavation operation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Calculating truck requirements</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In excavation operations, the estimator or the quantity surveyor has to decide the optimum number of trucks required to transport excavated materials.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A simple formula can be used for these calculations based on the idea that it is desirable to have sufficient trucking capacity to ensure that the excavation equipment can operate continuously without having idling time waiting for trucks.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, 03 trucks will be required if it takes 10 minutes to load a truck and 20 minutes for that truck to unload and return for another load. Then, when the first truck is away, the two other trucks can be loaded.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, the number of trucks required can be calculated as;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1461,\"width\":716,\"height\":170,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1461\" width=\"716\" height=\"170\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The number of trucks obtained from Eq. 1 should always be rounded up, no matter how small the decimal. It is better to have more rather than fewer trucks so that the excavator is always kept occupied.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Waste factors</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When estimating the material required for any work item, it is necessary to add a portion as the wastage of material used.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The quantities of material taken off are the unadjusted net amounts calculated from the drawings. Allowance for waste and spillage of this material can be made by increasing the take-off quantities or by increasing the price by a percentage factor considered reasonable.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The values of waste factors usually lie between 01 and 10 percent for different materials.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the equipment and labor prices per m<sup>3</sup> to excavate 3,000 m<sup>3</sup> of a trench using 0.75 m<sup>3</sup> backhoe costing LKR&nbsp; 6,700/day (day = 8 hrs), plus LKR 40,000 for transportation and set up charges. The expected output is 60 m<sup>3</sup>/hr with an operator and 0.5 labor at wages of LKR 400/hr and LKR 300/hr, respectively.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution: </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1462,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1462\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>Calculate the price of obtaining gravel from a pit located 16km from the work site, where the unit price is LKR 25/m<sup>3</sup>, using a loader with a rate of 50m<sup>3</sup>/hr (bank measure) and 12m<sup>3</sup> trucks to transport the gravel. The hire charges for the loader and trucks are LKR 4,500/day and LKR 3,000/day respectively. The labor crew consists of one equipment operator at LKR 400/hr, two laborers at LKR 300/hr, and a truck driver at LKR 350/hr. The average speed of the dump is 20km/hr. The swell factor for gravel is 12%.  Offloading time for trucks are 5 minutes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>First calculating the required number of trucks to have a balanced crew;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1463,\"width\":596,\"height\":244,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1463\" width=\"596\" height=\"244\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Secondly calculating the gravel supply price;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1464,\"width\":568,\"height\":298,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1464\" width=\"568\" height=\"298\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example - </em></strong>It is required to determine the unit price for mass concrete given the following information:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mass concrete quantity = 1,080 m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>01 m<sup>3 </sup>of mass concrete comprises 250 kg cement; 0.55 m<sup>3</sup> of sand (fine aggregate) and 1.02 m<sup>3 </sup>of 37.5 mm metal (coarse aggregates).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The prices of the materials are LKR 22,000/M.ton; LKR 7,500/m<sup>3</sup> and LKR 3,500/m<sup>3</sup> for cement, sand, and 37.5 mm metal respectively. Assume 10% wastage for all materials. The details of the crew used are shown in the table below. Assume overheads and markup 20%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:table -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Crew item</strong></td><td><strong>Number employed</strong></td><td><strong>Production rate</strong></td><td><strong>Unit rates</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Concrete pump</td><td>1</td><td>30 m<sup>3</sup>/hr</td><td>LKR 1,500/hr</td></tr><tr><td>Concrete mixer</td><td>3</td><td>9 m<sup>3</sup>/hr/machine</td><td>LKR 1,000/hr/machine</td></tr><tr><td>Vibrator</td><td>2</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/one</td></tr><tr><td>Labour</td><td>5</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 300/hr/person</td></tr><tr><td>Foreman</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>LKR 400/hr/person</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>\n<!-- /wp:table -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1465,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1465\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1466,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1466\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1467,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1467\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Estimating Activity cost', 'Estimating the cost of any work items includes estimating the cost of labor, equipment, and material. The analysis of a given job requires an in-depth examination of the plans and specifications given with the bid documents, an evaluation of the soil investigation report, etc.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1460-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-20 19:24:26', '2021-06-20 13:54:26', '', 1460, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1476', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1486, 1, '2021-06-29 20:21:06', '2021-06-29 14:51:06', '', 'coins-banknotes-money-1726618', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'coins-banknotes-money-1726618', '', '', '2021-06-29 20:21:06', '2021-06-29 14:51:06', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/coins-banknotes-money-1726618.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
INSERT INTO `wpba_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(1487, 1, '2021-06-29 20:24:37', '2021-06-29 14:54:37', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bidders in the construction business know it is very difficult to decide on a suitable margin to make the bid competitively against other bidders. The markup percentage must be low enough to win the bid and at the same time, high enough to make a reasonable profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, bidders have a common method of assessing a specific contract markup. That is adding a single percentage markup to the total of direct and indirect costs. It is assumed that this percentage will cover all the components of markup, such as risk allowances, financial charges, and profit. It includes a detailed analysis of the risky components in the project and their impact in terms of increased time and cost. In the meantime, a cash flow analysis must be done to estimate the financial charges before estimating a reasonable profit margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The direct costs are associated directly with the contract activities. However, indirect cost and markup are not associated with specific activities but with the whole contract. Therefore, the pricing policy is the method of how the indirect costs and markup be distributed among the work items of the bill of quantities, and to calculate the total bid price before submitting the bid to the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Balanced bid</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most of the bidders follow this method when calculating the bid price. In this method, the indirect cost and the markup will be distributed among different work items based on their direct cost value. That means, if the direct cost of an item is higher, the share from indirect cost and markup for the particular item is more. The resulting bid price arrived using this method is called a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1479,\"width\":583,\"height\":51,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1479\" width=\"583\" height=\"51\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Assume that the direct cost for an item (a) is LKR 400,000 and that item is included in a contract whose price is LKR 3,500,000 and its total direct cost is LKR 2,800,000. Calculate the price for the item (a) considering a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution -                     </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1480,\"width\":433,\"height\":209,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1480\" width=\"433\" height=\"209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1481,\"width\":467,\"height\":69,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1481\" width=\"467\" height=\"69\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Unbalanced bid (Loading of Rates)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bid price is unbalanced if the bidder raises the unit rates on certain bid items (usually the early items on the work programme) and reduces the unit rates on remaining work items so that the bid price remains the same. This process is also called the loading of rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The reason for loading the unit rates of the first items is to ensure more cash flow at the beginning of the contract and to reduce the negative cash flow, thereby reducing borrowing of money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method of loading rates may be risky to both the contractor and the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, when the contractor raised the price for a work item, and then the quantity of this item increased during the construction than what was in the bill of quantities then, the resulting situation is riskier to the client. It will cost the client more money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, if the contractor reduced the price of a specific work item in the bill of quantity and the quantity of that item increased during the construction, the situation is riskier for the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is better to follow a balanced way of distributing the indirect costs and markup among work items in the bill of quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Consider a contract having five consecutive activities with equal duration. The quantity of work in each activity, the direct cost rate, and the total cost rate for balanced and unbalanced bids are given in the Table below. Determine the influence of unbalanced bid on the contractor’s profit if:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1). Quantity of activity (B) is increased by 50%. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2). Quantity of activity (C) is increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1482,\"width\":716,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1482\" width=\"716\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution -         </em></strong><em>Here, it seems that the bidder has increased the unit rates of early items (i.e. in Activities A and B) in the unbalanced bid. However, to get the bid price on par with a balanced bid, the bidder has reduced the unit rates of remaining activities.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1483,\"width\":568,\"height\":85,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1483\" width=\"568\" height=\"85\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “B” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1484,\"width\":720,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1484\" width=\"720\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,200.00) is greater than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,000.00) which means more profit to the contractor and more risk to the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The next Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “C” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1485,\"width\":716,\"height\":179,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1485\" width=\"716\" height=\"179\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,400.00) is less than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,500.00) which means less profit and more risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decrease in bid price means the profit of the contractor has been decreased representing a risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>From National Procurement Agency (NPA) Guideline in Sri Lanka</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Examination of unbalanced bids (lowest evaluated bid) during bid evaluation to minimize the risk</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A bid may appear unbalanced resulting from the comparison of unit prices quoted by different bidders and the engineer’s estimate previously prepared by the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For Works contracts may be “unbalanced” in several ways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unit prices for work items that will be performed early during the construction can be priced high. Or else, the bidders who have reason to believe that the quantities given in the bill of quantities for one or more work items are underestimated will quote high on those items.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both cases, the unbalanced bids result in higher contract costs. In addition, in the first case, the incentive for the contractor to complete the contract is substantially reduced because the payments he would receive during the latter phases of the contract may be smaller than the costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steps to remedy the situation can, however, be taken in cases where the unbalancing is substantial, i.e. where the unit price quoted for the items involved are, say, 50 percent higher than the average quoted by the other bidders for the same items and where the total amount involved exceeds 5 percent of the total bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Remedial measures</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>In the case of very large contracts, say exceeding LKR 500 million:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The present value of all unbalanced items (using the work program as a basis for the timing of payments) can be computed, for over-pricing of the items that will be executed early during the performance. Simultaneously, the present value for such items can be computed using the prices of the engineer’s estimate. The difference between the two present values so computed can be added to the unbalance bid for comparison purposes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In cases of overpricing, the items that are believed to be underestimated in quantities should be adjusted by the inclusion of clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage rather than evaluating the effects at this stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>In the case of other contracts, say not exceeding LKR 500 million</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing early items, the remedial action should be based on the low quoted items rather than the items the bidder has quoted highly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidder shall be requested to prove to the satisfaction of the client /Procurement Entity (PE), how the bidder intends to procure such items/perform the Works/provide the Services as per the quoted rates, for such purposes the bidder may be asked to provide a rate analysis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the justification/explanation of the bidder is acceptable, the client/PE should proceed with the evaluation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the client/PE is of the view that the justification/explanation provided by the bidder is unacceptable, and hence the bidder would fail in the performance of his obligations within the quoted rates, higher performance security may be requested to mitigate such risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the bidder refuses to provide such additional performance security, his Bid shall be rejected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing high, the items believed to underestimated, rather than evaluating the effects at this stage it may be advisable to include clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage unless justified during the implementation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Price', 'The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1478-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-29 20:24:37', '2021-06-29 14:54:37', '', 1478, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1487', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1514, 1, '2021-07-31 20:06:54', '2021-07-31 14:36:54', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The depreciation can be defined as <strong><em>“the decline in the market value of an asset”</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A machine depreciates (decline in value) because;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- it wears out during usage, and&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- no longer possible to perform its functions well as when it was new.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depending on the type, machinery requires increased maintenance as they age. It reflects a slow and continuing failure of individual parts. In the meantime, the quality and the quantity of outputs may drop due to wear in component parts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another feature of depreciation is obsolescence. A machine is termed obsolete when the function it performs can be done in a better manner. A machine may be in excellent working condition, but may still be obsolete. For example, electronic machines, computers, etc.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Value of an asset</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Assets always have different values. Those can be termed as the initial value, book value, salvage value, and market value.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The initial value denotes the purchase price of an asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Salvage value is the expected selling price of the asset at the end of its useful life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The book value denotes the current value in the accounting systems. It is equal to the initial value of the asset minus all depreciation costs until the given time. Usually, the book value is calculated at the end of each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The market value is the value of the asset when it is sold in the free market. It is not necessary to be equal to the book value.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Depreciation is an accounting method that allows the recovery of the capital cost that was used to procure the asset.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Depreciation – Methods</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are three common methods for calculating depreciation expenses for financial accounting purposes:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>straight-line method,</li><li>sum-of-years digits method, and&nbsp;</li><li>sinking fund method.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each method involves the distribution of the amount to be depreciated through the recovery life of an asset logically.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Each depreciation method gives a different amount of depreciation expense per period.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The straight-line method assumes linear depreciation. In this method, the depreciation cost is allocated equally over the useful life of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The sum-of-years digits allocate a high rate of depreciation at the early age of an asset and decreasing rate at its latter stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The third, sinking fund method assumes a lower rate at the early life and a faster rate towards the end.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Straight-Line method&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The simplest mostly used and best known is the straight-line depreciation method.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In this method, a constant depreciation cost is used throughout the life period of the asset.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>To obtain the annual depreciation cost at any year, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, the total value to be depreciated (initial value, <em>P </em>– salvage value, <em>S</em>) is divided by the useful life in the number of years, <em>N</em>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1501,\"width\":320,\"height\":50,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1501\" width=\"320\" height=\"50\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 1</em></strong><em> - </em>If the purchase price of equipment is LKR 600,000.00 and its salvage value after 8 years is LKR 60,000.00, calculate the annual depreciation and the book value of the equipment each year.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution:&nbsp;</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1502,\"width\":500,\"height\":116,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1502\" width=\"500\" height=\"116\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Note that the book value of the equipment equals its salvage value at the end of its useful life as shown in the Table below.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1503,\"width\":336,\"height\":287,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1503\" width=\"336\" height=\"287\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sum-of-years digits method</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Sum-of-years digit is another method used to allocate the cost of an asset minus its salvage value over its useful life. This method gives faster depreciation at the early stage of the life of an asset resulting in smaller charges as the asset nears the end of its estimated life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Every year, the depreciation cost is calculated as the remaining useful life at the start of the year divided by the sum of the years digits for the total useful life, with this ratio multiplied by the total amount of depreciation (<em>P – S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It means the depreciation is calculated as the percentage of the remaining life to the original life.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For an asset with useful life <em>N</em>, to obtain the annual depreciation charge, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n</em>, can be calculated as follows:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1504,\"width\":497,\"height\":112,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1504\" width=\"497\" height=\"112\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example</em></strong><em> 2 – </em>Re-calculate the depreciation of the equipment in the above example using the sum-of-years digits method.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1505,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1505\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The calculations are shown in the following table.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1506,\"width\":555,\"height\":303,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1506\" width=\"555\" height=\"303\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sinking fund method&nbsp;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method assumes a uniform series of end-of-payments are paid into an imaginary sinking fund at a given interest rate <strong><em>i</em></strong>.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of the annual payment is calculated so that the accumulated sum at the end of the asset life, and at the stated interest rate, will equal the value of the asset depreciated. (i.e., <em>P -S</em>).&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The amount of yearly depreciation is invested in a compound manner for the remaining period as a uniform series of payments using given below:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1507,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1507\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then the depreciation value, <em>Y<sub>n</sub></em>, at any year <em>n </em>is calculated using the following equation;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1508,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1508\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example 3</em></strong><em> – </em>Re-calculate the above example using the sinking fund depreciation method, assuming that the interest rate is 10%.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution</em></strong><em> -</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1509,\"width\":515,\"height\":90,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1509\" width=\"515\" height=\"90\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Accordingly, the annual depreciation could be calculated as follows:&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1510,\"width\":520,\"height\":226,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1510\" width=\"520\" height=\"226\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The results of the depreciation calculations are summarized in Table below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1511,\"width\":380,\"height\":286,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-14.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1511\" width=\"380\" height=\"286\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After studying depreciation calculations from the above three methods, the depreciated amounts can be summarized as below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sum-of-year digits method shows an accelerated depreciation compared to the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The sinking fund is a decelerated method compared with the straight-line method.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, the straight-line method is the commonly applied and easier calculating method used in asset depreciation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Depreciation', 'The depreciation can be defined as “the decline in the market value of an asset”. 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(1490, 1, '2021-06-30 09:18:16', '2021-06-30 03:48:16', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Bidders in the construction business know it is very difficult to decide on a suitable margin to make the bid competitively against other bidders. The markup percentage must be low enough to win the bid and at the same time, high enough to make a reasonable profit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, bidders have a common method of assessing a specific contract markup. That is adding a single percentage markup to the total of direct and indirect costs. It is assumed that this percentage will cover all the components of markup, such as risk allowances, financial charges, and profit. It includes a detailed analysis of the risky components in the project and their impact in terms of increased time and cost. In the meantime, a cash flow analysis must be done to estimate the financial charges before estimating a reasonable profit margin.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The direct costs are associated directly with the contract activities. However, indirect cost and markup are not associated with specific activities but with the whole contract. Therefore, the pricing policy is the method of how the indirect costs and markup be distributed among the work items of the bill of quantities, and to calculate the total bid price before submitting the bid to the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Balanced bid</em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most of the bidders follow this method when calculating the bid price. In this method, the indirect cost and the markup will be distributed among different work items based on their direct cost value. That means, if the direct cost of an item is higher, the share from indirect cost and markup for the particular item is more. The resulting bid price arrived using this method is called a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1479,\"width\":583,\"height\":51,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1479\" width=\"583\" height=\"51\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Assume that the direct cost for an item (a) is LKR 400,000 and that item is included in a contract whose price is LKR 3,500,000 and its total direct cost is LKR 2,800,000. Calculate the price for the item (a) considering a balanced bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution - &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </em></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1480,\"width\":433,\"height\":209,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1480\" width=\"433\" height=\"209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1481,\"width\":467,\"height\":69,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1481\" width=\"467\" height=\"69\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Unbalanced bid (Loading of Rates)</em></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bid price is unbalanced if the bidder raises the unit rates on certain bid items (usually the early items on the work programme) and reduces the unit rates on remaining work items so that the bid price remains the same. This process is also called the loading of rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The reason for loading the unit rates of the first items is to ensure more cash flow at the beginning of the contract and to reduce the negative cash flow, thereby reducing borrowing of money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This method of loading rates may be risky to both the contractor and the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, when the contractor raised the price for a work item, and then the quantity of this item increased during the construction than what was in the bill of quantities then, the resulting situation is riskier to the client. It will cost the client more money.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>On the other hand, if the contractor reduced the price of a specific work item in the bill of quantity and the quantity of that item increased during the construction, the situation is riskier for the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore, it is better to follow a balanced way of distributing the indirect costs and markup among work items in the bill of quantities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Example -</em></strong><em> </em>Consider a contract having five consecutive activities with equal duration. The quantity of work in each activity, the direct cost rate, and the total cost rate for balanced and unbalanced bids are given in the Table below. Determine the influence of unbalanced bid on the contractor’s profit if:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1). Quantity of activity (B) is increased by 50%. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2). Quantity of activity (C) is increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1482,\"width\":716,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1482\" width=\"716\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Solution - &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </em></strong><em>Here, it seems that the bidder has increased the unit rates of early items (i.e. in Activities A and B) in the unbalanced bid. However, to get the bid price on par with a balanced bid, the bidder has reduced the unit rates of remaining activities.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1483,\"width\":568,\"height\":85,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1483\" width=\"568\" height=\"85\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “B” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1484,\"width\":720,\"height\":178,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-12.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1484\" width=\"720\" height=\"178\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Then, the price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,200.00) is greater than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,000.00) which means more profit to the contractor and more risk to the owner.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The next Table below shows the effect of the tender price if the quantity of activity “C” increased by 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1485,\"width\":716,\"height\":179,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/image-13.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1485\" width=\"716\" height=\"179\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The price of the unbalanced bid (LKR 7,400.00) is less than that of the balanced bid (LKR 7,500.00) which means less profit and more risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The decrease in bid price means the profit of the contractor has been decreased representing a risk to the contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>From National Procurement Agency (NPA) Guideline in Sri Lanka</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Examination of unbalanced bids (lowest evaluated bid) during bid evaluation to minimize the risk</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A bid may appear unbalanced resulting from the comparison of unit prices quoted by different bidders and the engineer’s estimate previously prepared by the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For Works contracts may be “unbalanced” in several ways.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Unit prices for work items that will be performed early during the construction can be priced high. Or else, the bidders who have reason to believe that the quantities given in the bill of quantities for one or more work items are underestimated will quote high on those items.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In both cases, the unbalanced bids result in higher contract costs. In addition, in the first case, the incentive for the contractor to complete the contract is substantially reduced because the payments he would receive during the latter phases of the contract may be smaller than the costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Steps to remedy the situation can, however, be taken in cases where the unbalancing is substantial, i.e. where the unit price quoted for the items involved are, say, 50 percent higher than the average quoted by the other bidders for the same items and where the total amount involved exceeds 5 percent of the total bid.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Remedial measures</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>In the case of very large contracts, say exceeding LKR 500 million:</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The present value of all unbalanced items (using the work program as a basis for the timing of payments) can be computed, for over-pricing of the items that will be executed early during the performance. Simultaneously, the present value for such items can be computed using the prices of the engineer’s estimate. The difference between the two present values so computed can be added to the unbalance bid for comparison purposes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In cases of overpricing, the items that are believed to be underestimated in quantities should be adjusted by the inclusion of clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage rather than evaluating the effects at this stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>In the case of other contracts, say not exceeding LKR 500 million</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing early items, the remedial action should be based on the low quoted items rather than the items the bidder has quoted highly.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The bidder shall be requested to prove to the satisfaction of the client /Procurement Entity (PE), how the bidder intends to procure such items/perform the Works/provide the Services as per the quoted rates, for such purposes the bidder may be asked to provide a rate analysis.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the justification/explanation of the bidder is acceptable, the client/PE should proceed with the evaluation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the client/PE is of the view that the justification/explanation provided by the bidder is unacceptable, and hence the bidder would fail in the performance of his obligations within the quoted rates, higher performance security may be requested to mitigate such risks.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If the bidder refuses to provide such additional performance security, his Bid shall be rejected.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For over-pricing high, the items believed to underestimated, rather than evaluating the effects at this stage it may be advisable to include clauses in the conditions of contract to limit the mandatory use of existing rates up to a certain percentage unless justified during the implementation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Bid Price and Unbalanced Bids', 'The total price of a bid consists of the cost and the markup. The cost includes direct and indirect costs. The markup includes profit margin, financial charges (cost of borrowing), and an allowance for risk margin.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1478-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-06-30 09:18:16', '2021-06-30 03:48:16', '', 1478, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1490', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1915, 1, '2023-05-14 12:10:33', '2023-05-14 06:40:33', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definition of a service contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract for pecuniary interest concluded in writing between a service provider and a contracting authority, i.e. client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definition of a service</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A service is a work that is not part of an organization’s core business, i.e. its main function, but which needs to be provided to carry out the business.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Special nature of service contracts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Significant factors which differentiate service contracts from other types of contracts</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Defining the requirements can be more complex.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Less easy to measure delivery in a service contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The contract may extend over a longer period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Generally involves closer contact between customer and service provider.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. The service provided may interface with other services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Drawing up the specifications</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The specification should define;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The scope of work, why it is required, and where it is to be done.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The output required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Standards to be met.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Response times.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. When and how the work is to be measured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Equipment, facilities, and materials to be supplied by the service provider and by the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Identification of any key events or activity and any approvals required before the next activity commences.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. Completion dates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. The service provider’s continuing responsibilities on completion of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Specifying outputs</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Completeness – the main task and any ancillary services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Clarity – ensuring that terminology and the service provider’s responsibilities are clearly defined.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Measurability – measurable outputs and measurement as objective as possible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Objectives – why the service is performed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Interfaces – responsibilities of the service receiver and provider.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Resource input – experience, education, qualifications, and other skills and equipment of defined standards and compatibility.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Quality Plans</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Should include information on;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. How the service will be provided.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The procedures and controls the service provider will use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The people involved in delivering the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The quality of materials to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. How the contract will be monitored by the supplier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. What customer satisfaction measures will be used?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. How complaints of poor services will be handled.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. How problems will be resolved.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. How the contractor will be penalized for non-compliance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contractual matters</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract strategy should define;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The type of contract to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The number of contractors to be used to provide the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. What contracting procedures will be used?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. A procurement plan defining actions and individual responsibilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Key staff involved.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. The length of the contract and options for extension.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SAFETY</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Requires the contractor to find out and comply with all relevant laws and rules relating to safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The contractor must also ensure observance by all relevant employees and sub-contractors,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>DEFAULT</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the case of unsatisfactory performance by the contractor, the client can use another contractor to carry out the work and recover any additional cost from the original contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Service Contracts', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'service-contracts', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:10:35', '2023-05-14 06:40:35', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1915', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1917, 1, '2023-05-14 12:10:33', '2023-05-14 06:40:33', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definition of a service contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract for pecuniary interest concluded in writing between a service provider and a contracting authority, i.e. client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Definition of a service</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A service is a work that is not part of an organization’s core business, i.e. its main function, but which needs to be provided to carry out the business.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Special nature of service contracts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Significant factors which differentiate service contracts from other types of contracts</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Defining the requirements can be more complex.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Less easy to measure delivery in a service contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The contract may extend over a longer period.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Generally involves closer contact between customer and service provider.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. The service provided may interface with other services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Drawing up the specifications</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The specification should define;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The scope of work, why it is required, and where it is to be done.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The output required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Standards to be met.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Response times.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. When and how the work is to be measured.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Equipment, facilities, and materials to be supplied by the service provider and by the client.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. Identification of any key events or activity and any approvals required before the next activity commences.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. Completion dates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. The service provider’s continuing responsibilities on completion of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Specifying outputs</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Completeness – the main task and any ancillary services.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. Clarity – ensuring that terminology and the service provider’s responsibilities are clearly defined.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. Measurability – measurable outputs and measurement as objective as possible.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Objectives – why the service is performed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Interfaces – responsibilities of the service receiver and provider.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. Resource input – experience, education, qualifications, and other skills and equipment of defined standards and compatibility.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Quality Plans</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Should include information on;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. How the service will be provided.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The procedures and controls the service provider will use.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The people involved in delivering the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. The quality of materials to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. How the contract will be monitored by the supplier.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. What customer satisfaction measures will be used?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. How complaints of poor services will be handled.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>8. How problems will be resolved.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>9. How the contractor will be penalized for non-compliance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Contractual matters</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Contract strategy should define;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The type of contract to be used.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The number of contractors to be used to provide the service.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. What contracting procedures will be used?</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. A procurement plan defining actions and individual responsibilities.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Key staff involved.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. The length of the contract and options for extension.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SAFETY</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. Requires the contractor to find out and comply with all relevant laws and rules relating to safety.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The contractor must also ensure observance by all relevant employees and sub-contractors,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>DEFAULT</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the case of unsatisfactory performance by the contractor, the client can use another contractor to carry out the work and recover any additional cost from the original contractor.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Service Contracts', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1915-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-05-14 12:10:33', '2023-05-14 06:40:33', '', 1915, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1917', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1516, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-07-31 14:38:24', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1516', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1516/', 51, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1517, 1, '2021-07-31 21:00:49', '2021-07-31 15:30:49', '<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Example</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate per 1 m<sup>2</sup> of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Data</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1518,\"width\":536,\"height\":188,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1518\" width=\"536\" height=\"188\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labour for rubble masonry work</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- 01 mason &amp; 01 unskilled labour can finish 01 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble masonry within 05 hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labour for cement mortar mixing&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- 04 hours of unskilled labour for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of cement mortar mixing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1519,\"width\":567,\"height\":174,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1519\" width=\"567\" height=\"174\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Solution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1520,\"width\":540,\"height\":269,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1520\" width=\"540\" height=\"269\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1521,\"width\":525,\"height\":323,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1521\" width=\"525\" height=\"323\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Cost of mortar for 01 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble masonry</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1522,\"width\":525,\"height\":88,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1522\" width=\"525\" height=\"88\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Cost of rubble for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble wall </h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":1523,\"width\":408,\"height\":50,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1523\" width=\"408\" height=\"50\"/></figure></div>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Labour for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble walling</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1524,\"width\":577,\"height\":231,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1524\" width=\"577\" height=\"231\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1525,\"width\":550,\"height\":129,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-22.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1525\" width=\"550\" height=\"129\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1526,\"width\":555,\"height\":84,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-23.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1526\" width=\"555\" height=\"84\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit Rate Calculations – Examples – Rubble Masonry work', 'Calculate a unit rate per 1 m2 of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'unit-rate-calculations-examples-rubble-masonry-work', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:00:52', '2021-07-31 15:30:52', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1517', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1528, 1, '2021-07-31 21:00:49', '2021-07-31 15:30:49', '<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Example</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate per 1 m<sup>2</sup> of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Data</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1518,\"width\":536,\"height\":188,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-15.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1518\" width=\"536\" height=\"188\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labour for rubble masonry work</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- 01 mason &amp; 01 unskilled labour can finish 01 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble masonry within 05 hours.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Labour for cement mortar mixing&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- 04 hours of unskilled labour for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of cement mortar mixing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1519,\"width\":567,\"height\":174,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-16.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1519\" width=\"567\" height=\"174\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Solution</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1520,\"width\":540,\"height\":269,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-17.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1520\" width=\"540\" height=\"269\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1521,\"width\":525,\"height\":323,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-18.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1521\" width=\"525\" height=\"323\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Cost of mortar for 01 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble masonry</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1522,\"width\":525,\"height\":88,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-19.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1522\" width=\"525\" height=\"88\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Cost of rubble for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble wall </h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":1523,\"width\":408,\"height\":50,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-20.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1523\" width=\"408\" height=\"50\"/></figure></div>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":4} -->\n<h4>Labour for 1 m<sup>3</sup> of rubble walling</h4>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1524,\"width\":577,\"height\":231,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-21.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1524\" width=\"577\" height=\"231\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1525,\"width\":550,\"height\":129,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-22.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1525\" width=\"550\" height=\"129\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1526,\"width\":555,\"height\":84,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-23.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1526\" width=\"555\" height=\"84\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit Rate Calculations – Examples – Rubble Masonry work', 'Calculate a unit rate per 1 m2 of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1517-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:00:49', '2021-07-31 15:30:49', '', 1517, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1528', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1530, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-07-31 15:31:47', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1530', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1530/', 52, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1531, 1, '2021-07-31 21:14:02', '2021-07-31 15:44:02', '<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Example</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate for supplying &amp; placing 1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete in a column foundation, using the data given below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Data</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1532,\"width\":607,\"height\":619,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-24.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1532\" width=\"607\" height=\"619\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Answer</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1533,\"width\":558,\"height\":129,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-25.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1533\" width=\"558\" height=\"129\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1534,\"width\":564,\"height\":345,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-26.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1534\" width=\"564\" height=\"345\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1535,\"width\":557,\"height\":365,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-27.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1535\" width=\"557\" height=\"365\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1536,\"width\":612,\"height\":209,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-28.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1536\" width=\"612\" height=\"209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1537,\"width\":561,\"height\":77,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-29.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1537\" width=\"561\" height=\"77\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit rate calculation – Examples – Concrete', 'Calculate a unit rate for supplying & placing 1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete in a column foundation, using the data given below.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'unit-rate-calculation-examples-concrete', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:14:05', '2021-07-31 15:44:05', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1531', 0, 'post', '', 3),
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(1537, 1, '2021-07-31 21:08:42', '2021-07-31 15:38:42', '', 'image-29', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-29', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:08:42', '2021-07-31 15:38:42', '', 1531, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-29.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1538, 1, '2021-07-31 21:13:51', '2021-07-31 15:43:51', '', 'construction-site-build-1491693', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'construction-site-build-1491693', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:13:51', '2021-07-31 15:43:51', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/construction-site-build-1491693.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1539, 1, '2021-07-31 21:14:02', '2021-07-31 15:44:02', '<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Example</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate for supplying &amp; placing 1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete in a column foundation, using the data given below.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Data</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1532,\"width\":607,\"height\":619,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-24.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1532\" width=\"607\" height=\"619\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Answer</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1533,\"width\":558,\"height\":129,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-25.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1533\" width=\"558\" height=\"129\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1534,\"width\":564,\"height\":345,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-26.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1534\" width=\"564\" height=\"345\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1535,\"width\":557,\"height\":365,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-27.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1535\" width=\"557\" height=\"365\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1536,\"width\":612,\"height\":209,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-28.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1536\" width=\"612\" height=\"209\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1537,\"width\":561,\"height\":77,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/image-29.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1537\" width=\"561\" height=\"77\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit rate calculation – Examples – Concrete', 'Calculate a unit rate for supplying & placing 1:2:4 (20 mm) concrete in a column foundation, using the data given below.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1531-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-07-31 21:14:02', '2021-07-31 15:44:02', '', 1531, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1539', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1660, 1, '2021-09-01 19:12:10', '2021-09-01 13:42:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction projects are generally long-term engagements that require a lot of capital. Therefore, different funding arrangements are required for contractors to control their cash flow. If contractors do not receive interim payments during the construction for what they have already constructed, they need higher capital to finish the contract. Then, the cost of money for the required capital will be reflected in the tender sum. Therefore, it is a usual practice to include a clause in any Condition of Contracts enabling interim payments to contractors. This will help to relieve the contractor of the burden of financing the whole of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Any certificate of payment issued by the Engineer before the Final Payment Certificate is defined as an interim Payment.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is how the contractors receive progress payments during the construction. Interim certificates are normally issued monthly. However, on very large contracts, a shorter period also may be specified.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An interim valuation involves a re-valuation of the whole work up to the time of measurement. It is not the valuation of work done since the last payment was issued. When preparing an interim valuation, it should be treated as a mini final account, because it largely reflects all the elements which appear in a final account.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another important matter is an interim valuation needs the same scrutiny as final accounts. It must be a genuine valuation of work done up to the time of measurement. If the valuation is lower, it creates unreasonable financial problems for a contractor. Similarly, a high valuation makes a risk to the employer of paying added amounts without having any benefit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, an interim certificate is not definite about anything. It says nothing about the quality of materials or workmanship. Also, it does not indicate satisfaction with the work done to date. Anything included in an interim certificate may be changed, if necessary, with a later certificate. It is only the final certificate that is ever conclusive. Therefore, the only commitment covered from an interim certificate is an obligation on the employer to make a payment within the stated time in Condition of Contract. Failure to pay within the stipulated time is a breach of contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Almost any standard form of contract mentions an entitlement on the part of the contractor to receive interim payments. These payments assist in the contractor’s cash flow. However, the actual determination of the contractor’s entitlement is made when preparing the final certificate. Therefore, interim payments are sums paid on account of whatever the contractor might ultimately be entitled to receive from the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most standard forms make the issue of a certificate a condition precedent to the contractor’s right to payment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>CIDA (ICTAD)/ SBD / 01 – in Sri Lanka</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per the <strong>CIDA</strong> (<strong>ICTAD)/ SBD / 01, (Clause 42.1),</strong> the Contractor can submit to the Engineer monthly statements of the estimated value of work done less the cumulative value certified previously. Interim valuations are always carried out on a cumulative basis; the quantity surveyor will value the whole of the work executed up to the valuation date and then sums previously certified will be deducted.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>(Clause 42.2),</strong> The Engineer has to check the statement, certify the amount to be paid to the contractor and submit it to the Employer within 21 days of receipt of the bill. The amount certified after appropriate deductions must be greater than the minimum amount for interim payment certificate as stated in the Contract Data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After adjusting for deductions for advance payments <strong>(Clause 51.3)</strong> and retention <strong>(Clause 48.1),</strong> the Employer has to pay the Contractor within 14 days of receipt of the bill, <strong>(Clause 43.1).</strong>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer can make any corrections or modifications to any previous payment certificate in light of the latter information <strong>(Clause 42.6).</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Interim Bill may contain;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The Value of the permanent works executed up to last measurement date for any item in the B.O.Q, including for contractor’s equipment, temporary works, nominated subcontractors’ / nominated suppliers’ works, and the like, <strong>(Clause 42.4),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The value of work executed under variations, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The 80 percent invoice value of materials delivered by the Contractor onto the site for incorporation in the permanent works but not yet incorporated in such works, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Adjustments for price variations, <strong>(Clause 47.1),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Value of compensation events, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Note:</strong> The Practical Completion Bill also can be considered as an Interim payment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Interim Payment Certificates', 'Any certificate of payment issued by the Engineer before the Final Payment Certificate is defined as an interim Payment. ', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'interim-payment-certificates', '', '', '2021-09-01 21:11:38', '2021-09-01 15:41:38', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1660', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1661, 1, '2021-09-01 19:11:51', '2021-09-01 13:41:51', '', 'accounting-report-credit-card-761599', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'accounting-report-credit-card-761599', '', '', '2021-09-01 19:11:51', '2021-09-01 13:41:51', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/accounting-report-credit-card-761599.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1662, 1, '2021-09-01 19:12:10', '2021-09-01 13:42:10', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Construction projects are generally long-term engagements that require a lot of capital. Therefore, different funding arrangements are required for contractors to control their cash flow. If contractors do not receive interim payments during the construction for what they have already constructed, they need higher capital to finish the contract. Then, the cost of money for the required capital will be reflected in the tender sum. Therefore, it is a usual practice to include a clause in any Condition of Contracts enabling interim payments to contractors. This will help to relieve the contractor of the burden of financing the whole of the work.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Any certificate of payment issued by the Engineer before the Final Payment Certificate is defined as an interim Payment.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is how the contractors receive progress payments during the construction. Interim certificates are normally issued monthly. However, on very large contracts, a shorter period also may be specified.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An interim valuation involves a re-valuation of the whole work up to the time of measurement. It is not the valuation of work done since the last payment was issued. When preparing an interim valuation, it should be treated as a mini final account, because it largely reflects all the elements which appear in a final account.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Another important matter is an interim valuation needs the same scrutiny as final accounts. It must be a genuine valuation of work done up to the time of measurement. If the valuation is lower, it creates unreasonable financial problems for a contractor. Similarly, a high valuation makes a risk to the employer of paying added amounts without having any benefit.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Anyhow, an interim certificate is not definite about anything. It says nothing about the quality of materials or workmanship. Also, it does not indicate satisfaction with the work done to date. Anything included in an interim certificate may be changed, if necessary, with a later certificate. It is only the final certificate that is ever conclusive. Therefore, the only commitment covered from an interim certificate is an obligation on the employer to make a payment within the stated time in Condition of Contract. Failure to pay within the stipulated time is a breach of contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Almost any standard form of contract mentions an entitlement on the part of the contractor to receive interim payments. These payments assist in the contractor’s cash flow. However, the actual determination of the contractor’s entitlement is made when preparing the final certificate. Therefore, interim payments are sums paid on account of whatever the contractor might ultimately be entitled to receive from the Employer. Most standard forms make the issue of a certificate a condition precedent to the contractor’s right to payment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>CIDA (ICTAD)/ SBD / 01 – in Sri Lanka</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As per the <strong>CIDA</strong> (<strong>ICTAD)/ SBD / 01, (Clause 42.1),</strong> the Contractor can submit to the Engineer monthly statements of the estimated value of work done less the cumulative value certified previously. Interim valuations are always carried out on a cumulative basis; the quantity surveyor will value the whole of the work executed up to the valuation date and then sums previously certified will be deducted.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>(Clause 42.2),</strong> The Engineer has to check the statement, certify the amount to be paid to the contractor and submit it to the Employer within 21 days of receipt of the bill. The amount certified after appropriate deductions must be greater than the minimum amount for interim payment certificate as stated in the Contract Data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>After adjusting for deductions for advance payments <strong>(Clause 51.3)</strong> and retention <strong>(Clause 48.1),</strong> the Employer has to pay the Contractor within 14 days of receipt of the bill, <strong>(Clause 43.1).</strong>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer can make any corrections or modifications to any previous payment certificate in light of the latter information <strong>(Clause 42.6).</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Interim Bill may contain;</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. The Value of the permanent works executed up to last measurement date for any item in the B.O.Q, including for contractor’s equipment, temporary works, nominated subcontractors’ / nominated suppliers’ works, and the like, <strong>(Clause 42.4),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The value of work executed under variations, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The 80 percent invoice value of materials delivered by the Contractor onto the site for incorporation in the permanent works but not yet incorporated in such works, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. Adjustments for price variations, <strong>(Clause 47.1),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. Value of compensation events, <strong>(Clause 42.5),</strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>Note:</strong> The Practical Completion Bill also can be considered as an Interim payment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Interim Payment Certificates', 'Any certificate of payment issued by the Engineer before the Final Payment Certificate is defined as an interim Payment. ', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1660-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-09-01 19:12:10', '2021-09-01 13:42:10', '', 1660, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1662', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1541, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-07-31 15:44:41', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1541', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1541/', 53, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1545, 1, '2021-08-11 23:38:40', '2021-08-11 18:08:40', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Example</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate (per 01 m<sup>2</sup>) for applying 02 coats of Emulsion paint on a plastered wall surface using the following data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Data</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1560,\"width\":517,\"height\":320,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1560\" width=\"517\" height=\"320\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Solution</strong> <strong>– for 01 m<sup>2</sup></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1561,\"width\":560,\"height\":403,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1561\" width=\"560\" height=\"403\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit rate calculation – Example – Wall painting', 'Calculate a unit rate (per 01 m2) for applying 02 coats of Emulsion paint on a plastered wall surface using the following data.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'unit-rate-calculations', '', '', '2021-08-13 19:01:45', '2021-08-13 13:31:45', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1545', 0, 'post', '', 2),
(1546, 1, '2021-08-11 23:28:23', '2021-08-11 17:58:23', '', 'image', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-30', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:28:23', '2021-08-11 17:58:23', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1547, 1, '2021-08-11 23:29:22', '2021-08-11 17:59:22', '', 'image-1', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-1-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:29:22', '2021-08-11 17:59:22', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-1.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1548, 1, '2021-08-11 23:29:47', '2021-08-11 17:59:47', '', 'image-2', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-2-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:29:47', '2021-08-11 17:59:47', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-2.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1549, 1, '2021-08-11 23:30:17', '2021-08-11 18:00:17', '', 'image-3', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-3-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:30:17', '2021-08-11 18:00:17', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-3.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1550, 1, '2021-08-11 23:30:39', '2021-08-11 18:00:39', '', 'image-4', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-4-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:30:39', '2021-08-11 18:00:39', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-4.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1551, 1, '2021-08-11 23:31:08', '2021-08-11 18:01:08', '', 'image-5', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-5-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:31:08', '2021-08-11 18:01:08', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-5.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1552, 1, '2021-08-11 23:31:42', '2021-08-11 18:01:42', '', 'image-6', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-6-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:31:42', '2021-08-11 18:01:42', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-6.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1553, 1, '2021-08-11 23:32:07', '2021-08-11 18:02:07', '', 'image-7', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-7-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:32:07', '2021-08-11 18:02:07', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-7.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1554, 1, '2021-08-11 23:32:39', '2021-08-11 18:02:39', '', 'image-8', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-8-3', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:32:39', '2021-08-11 18:02:39', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-8.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1555, 1, '2021-08-11 23:38:07', '2021-08-11 18:08:07', '', 'wall-stone-wall-brick-3113227', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'wall-stone-wall-brick-3113227', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:38:07', '2021-08-11 18:08:07', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/wall-stone-wall-brick-3113227.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1562, 1, '2021-08-13 19:01:42', '2021-08-13 13:31:42', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Example</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate (per 01 m<sup>2</sup>) for applying 02 coats of Emulsion paint on a plastered wall surface using the following data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Data</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1560,\"width\":517,\"height\":320,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-9.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1560\" width=\"517\" height=\"320\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Solution</strong> <strong>– for 01 m<sup>2</sup></strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1561,\"width\":560,\"height\":403,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1561\" width=\"560\" height=\"403\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit rate calculation – Example – Wall painting', 'Calculate a unit rate (per 01 m2) for applying 02 coats of Emulsion paint on a plastered wall surface using the following data.', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1545-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-13 19:01:42', '2021-08-13 13:31:42', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1562', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(1556, 1, '2021-08-11 23:38:40', '2021-08-11 18:08:40', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Example</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Calculate a unit rate per 1 m<sup>2</sup> of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Data</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1546,\"width\":467,\"height\":164,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1546\" width=\"467\" height=\"164\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1547,\"width\":544,\"height\":132,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1547\" width=\"544\" height=\"132\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1548,\"width\":540,\"height\":163,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-2.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1548\" width=\"540\" height=\"163\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Solution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1549,\"width\":521,\"height\":262,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-3.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1549\" width=\"521\" height=\"262\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1550,\"width\":498,\"height\":197,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-4.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1550\" width=\"498\" height=\"197\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1551,\"width\":501,\"height\":88,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-5.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1551\" width=\"501\" height=\"88\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1552,\"width\":517,\"height\":163,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-6.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1552\" width=\"517\" height=\"163\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1553,\"width\":567,\"height\":382,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-7.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1553\" width=\"567\" height=\"382\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1554,\"width\":533,\"height\":68,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-8.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1554\" width=\"533\" height=\"68\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->', 'Unit Rate Calculations – Examples – Rubble Masonry work', 'Calculate a unit rate per 1 m2 of 350 mm thick rubble masonry wall using 1:5 Cement : Sand mix. Use the following data', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1545-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-11 23:38:40', '2021-08-11 18:08:40', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1556', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1683, 1, '2021-09-12 00:01:13', '2021-09-11 18:31:13', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The basis of the law of contract is the legal enforceability of promises.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract may be defined as an agreement that the law can enforce if any party breach terms of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In breach of contract, the innocent party has several legal remedies. The first thing the innocent party can do is sue the party who breached terms and ask for damages. Or else, the innocent party can ask the court to order the other party to perform the contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Example: Kamal has agreed to sell land that belongs to him to Nimal for an agreed price. Nimal later hears that Kamal is planning to sell the same land to another person. Nimal can ask the court to order Kamal to sell the land to Nimal as agreed, and also for an order (injunction) to prevent Kamal from selling the land to another party.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Law of Contract is mostly based on judicial decisions instead of a single statute or code. However, in some areas that affecting contract law, the legislation also plays a major role.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(For example, Sale of Goods Ordinance and more recently Consumer Protection Act in Sri Lanka).&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Most business agreements are simple contracts. A contract may be in writing or maybe done verbally. In some situations, the conduct of the parties may create a contract. No formalities are required for simple contracts. However, in some situations, specific formalities and documents are required by legislation.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The legal rules discussed below apply to simple contracts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Definition and requirements of a contract</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A contract is an agreement between two or more parties that can be enforced by the law.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Requirements for a valid contract&nbsp;</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>1. There must be an agreement between two or more parties.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>2. The intention of the parties to the contract must be to have a legal relationship.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>3. The contract must conform to any required statutory formalities.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>4. In English law, there is a necessity that the agreement must be supported by consideration.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>However, the Roman-Dutch law, which applies in Sri Lanka and some other countries, does not require consideration. In Roman-Dutch law, any good or valid reason which is expressed by the Latin term </em><strong><em>justa causa</em></strong><em> will be sufficient for a contract.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>5. The parties to the agreement must have the legal capacity to contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For example, a contract with a minor is not considered a valid contract</em><em>.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>6. The agreement must be genuine. It must not be affected by factors such as mistake, misrepresentation, fraud, undue influence, and duress.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>7. The agreement must be for a purpose of an object which is not illegal. It must not conflict with public policy.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Intention to create legal relations</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;</strong>An agreement only will not create a contract binding in law. A critical element in the formation of a contract is the need for an <strong><em>intention by the parties to create legally binding obligations</em></strong>. Unless the parties aim to create an agreement enforceable at law, there will be no contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Domestic or social agreements are generally not considered valid contracts</strong> </h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Example: If Sunil agrees to lend his motor car to his friend Namal, and later refuses or fails to do so, then Namal will not be able to sue Sunil for a breach of contract. This is because Sunil’s promise was of a social nature, a promise by a friend to another friend. Neither Sunil nor Namal would have expected legal action when Sunil promised to lend the motor car.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Example: If a husband does not honour his promise to buy his wife a birthday present, it is clear that the wife cannot sue the husband for not honouring his promises. This is because promises of these kinds are considered as domestic or social nature which the courts of law will not enforce if broken.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There are several well-known judicial decisions to illustrate the above views.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong><em>Balfour v Balfour </em></strong><strong>[1919]</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In <strong><em>Balfour v Balfour [1919]</em></strong> - a husband – the defendant - who was a British civil servant working in Sri Lanka came to England with his wife – the plaintiff - on a holiday. The husband has returned after the holiday, the wife staying in England due to health problems. The defendant promised to pay the plaintiff £30 per month for maintenance. However, the defendant failed to keep up the payments, and subsequently, the couple decided to separate. The wife sued the husband for the allowance after the husband had stopped paying. The English Court of Appeal held that the husband was not liable to pay it because;&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>a) the wife had&nbsp;provided no consideration for the promise to pay £30; and&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>b) agreements&nbsp;between husbands and wives are not contracts, because the parties do not intend&nbsp;them to be legally binding.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, every agreement between a husband and wife is not considered a social agreement.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The following is an example.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong><em>Merritt v Merritt </em>[1970]</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Mr. and Mrs. Merritt married in 1941. They held their matrimonial home in joint names. In 1966, Mr. Merritt left the wife to live with another woman. After that, they met for making arrangements for the future. The&nbsp;husband agreed to pay £40 per month for maintenance. However, from this maintenance, the wife had to pay the mortgage of the house. At the wife’s request, Mr. Merritt signed a document confirming that after repaying the balance on the mortgage by her, he would hand over the matrimonial home into the wife’s name. Mrs. Merritt paid the mortgage fully and acquired a declaration that the house belonged to her. However, Mr. Merritt opposed saying that the agreement was a domestic arrangement between a husband and wife, and there was no intention to create a legal relationship. Therefore, it was not an enforceable contract. He also argued the alleged contract was insufficiently certain to be enforceable by the court because Mrs. Merritt failed to provide consideration for his promise. Mrs. Merritt argued that they were in the process of separating. Therefore, the presumption of no intention to create legal relations did not apply. She demanded that there was every intention of creating legal relations. She further argued that paying off all the expenses on the home and finishing off the mortgage payments amounted to consideration.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Court held that Mr. Merritt’s appeal was unsuccessful. When parties are in the process of separating or are separated, the presumption of there being no intention to create legal relations does not apply. The arrangement was sufficiently certain to be enforceable, and the paying of the mortgage was sufficient consideration for Mr. Merritt’s promise. Therefore, Mrs. Merritt was entitled to the matrimonial home entirely.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Agreements between business people are recognized as contracts</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>When business people or commercial bodies enter into agreements, there is a presumption that such agreements result in legally enforceable contracts.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Example: Gamini and Srimal are two businessmen. They are also good friends. Gamini agrees to sell a business property to Srimal for an agreed price and executes a notarial document to that effect. Gamini then tells Srimal, “although I agreed to sell that business property to you, I have now changed my mind and I have decided to sell it to another party”. Despite their close friendship, Srimal can take legal action against Gamini to enforce the written agreement since it is a commercial transaction.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Agreement between two or more persons</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The beginning of a contract is an agreement between two or more parties. The minds of both parties must agree about the subject matter of the contract.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong><em>Consensus ad idem</em></strong> is the legal term used to describe this as the meeting of two minds.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The courts have accepted the process of ‘offer and acceptance’ to see whether there has been an agreement between the parties.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Example: If Shiran wishes to buy a car from Reynold, they must agree about the price and other terms of delivery, etc. Shiran, the buyer, will be the offeror and Reynold will be the offeree. Shiran’s offer to Reynold is “I will buy your car for Rs. 1,000,000/-.” Reynold, the seller, has to accept this offer, for there to be a contract.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Law of Contract – the basics', 'The basis of the law of contract is the legal enforceability of promises. In breach of contract, the innocent party has several legal remedy.', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'contract-law-2', '', '', '2021-09-12 21:15:59', '2021-09-12 15:45:59', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1683', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(1558, 1, '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2021-08-11 18:11:01', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1558', '', '', '2024-06-09 21:03:13', '2024-06-09 15:33:13', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1558/', 54, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1561, 1, '2021-08-13 18:58:57', '2021-08-13 13:28:57', '', 'image-10', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-10-3', '', '', '2021-08-13 18:58:57', '2021-08-13 13:28:57', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-10.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1560, 1, '2021-08-13 18:57:42', '2021-08-13 13:27:42', '', 'image-9', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'image-9-3', '', '', '2021-08-13 18:57:42', '2021-08-13 13:27:42', '', 1545, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-9.png', 0, 'attachment', 'image/png', 0),
(1565, 1, '2021-08-23 22:43:46', '2021-08-23 17:13:46', '', 'pointing-accusation-accuse-1991215', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'pointing-accusation-accuse-1991215', '', '', '2021-08-23 22:43:46', '2021-08-23 17:13:46', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/pointing-accusation-accuse-1991215.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0),
(1566, 1, '2021-08-23 22:45:39', '2021-08-23 17:15:39', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the modern world, construction projects have become inevitably complex due to the dynamic business and technology-oriented environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Major improvements in nowadays construction projects are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Great deal of inputs involvement,</li><li>Accretion of numerous parties engaged,</li><li>Variety of technological attachment.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Poor stakeholder relationship frequently leads to many conflicts during the construction. Its ultimate results could be an origination of disputes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes derive to:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Additional <strong>cost </strong>involvement,</li><li>Additional <strong>time</strong> involvement,</li><li>Damaging the <strong>reputation </strong>of the company,</li><li>Depression in <strong>socio-economy</strong> in the country,</li><li>Spoiling stakeholders <strong>relationship.</strong></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes are widespread in every construction project due to ever-rising customer requirements and the number of stakeholder involvements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a common problem in the construction industry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These dispute needs to be managed by experienced and expert personnel through appropriate actions and strategies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, dispute handling may require the involvement of dispute management experts who has specific skills and competencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Primary causes for dispute occurrence</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Erroneous contract interpretation,</li><li>Drafting of ambiguous documentation,</li><li>Lack of information and project scope,</li><li>Issues regarding progress and quality,</li><li>Probable issues regarding adequate and timely payments, etc.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Root causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Unfair risk allocation among parties,</li><li>Unrealistic time/cost/quality targets set by the client,</li><li>Adversarial industry culture,</li><li>Inappropriate contract type,</li><li>Unrealistic information expectations.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Proximate causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Inadequate brief,</li><li>Slow client responses,</li><li>Inaccurate design information,</li><li>Inaccurate design documentation,</li><li>Inappropriate contract form,</li><li>Inadequate contract administration,</li><li>Inappropriate contractor selection.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Handling Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Dispute Management</li><li>Dispute avoidance</li><li>Dispute Resolution</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Management</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is a process of problem identification, quantification, and resolution. It involves developing a system that includes defining a set of skills required to minimize the possibility of disputes occurring, and managing them effectively without escalation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It needs proactive measures rather than reactive in dispute resolution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is effective in providing a solution for disputes. Its primary focus should be on managing and controlling the causes of disputes. Therefore, the involvement of key project players with skill, knowledge, and experience is essential in the dispute identification stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, concentrating solely to avoid conflicts before it escalates into a major dispute may be a great comfort to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute avoidance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For avoiding disputes, a careful investigation and complete awareness of the project are necessary. Dispute avoidance is to handle and resolve conflict before disputes occur or before it escalates into a major disagreement or dispute.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initial involvement in the project may bring all means of settling issues to avoid disputes, consistent with the requirements of the client.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, a simplistic and straightforward approach of care and management in the preparation of documentation without ambiguity may avoid disputes at later stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute resolution arises only when there is a dispute and reference is made to resolve it. Disputes can be resolved in many ways using various procedures, such as by court proceedings, using other formal or informal settings involving Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR methods include dispute resolving processes and techniques that fall outside of the government judicial processes.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instead of time consuming and expensive litigation process, ADR methods were introduced to provide effective and efficient solutions for disputes. ADR methods eliminate most of the undesirable features of litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it is advisable to resolve disputes with the ‘‘least possible intervention by an outside third party’’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR popularity has increased due to its flexibility, cost-effectiveness of the process, and ability to bring a speedy conclusion to the problem.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dispute resolution in Construction Projects', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1564-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-23 22:45:39', '2021-08-23 17:15:39', '', 1564, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1566', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1568, 1, '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2021-08-23 17:17:22', ' ', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1568', '', '', '2023-05-27 05:13:01', '2023-05-26 23:43:01', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/1568/', 15, 'nav_menu_item', '', 0),
(1569, 1, '2021-08-23 23:20:38', '2021-08-23 17:50:38', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties, it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract. </li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include; <ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'engineers-responsibility', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:40:11', '2021-08-24 05:10:11', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1569', 0, 'post', '', 2),
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(1571, 1, '2021-08-23 23:20:38', '2021-08-23 17:50:38', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>- impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is he empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs, affecting payment. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an Interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract. </li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include; <ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-23 23:20:38', '2021-08-23 17:50:38', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1571', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1821, 1, '2023-02-25 23:14:52', '2023-02-25 17:44:52', '', 'Georgian-wired-glass', '', 'inherit', 'open', 'closed', '', 'georgian-wired-glass', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:14:52', '2023-02-25 17:44:52', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Georgian-wired-glass.jpg', 0, 'attachment', 'image/jpeg', 0);
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(1822, 1, '2023-02-25 23:14:59', '2023-02-25 17:44:59', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The term <em>glass </em>refers to materials, usually blends of metallic oxides, mainly silica, which do not crystallize when cooled from the liquid to the solid state. It is the non-crystalline or amorphous structure of glass that gives rise to its transparency.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1810,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Glass.png\" alt=\"Glass\" class=\"wp-image-1810\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass made from sand, lime, and soda ash has been known in Egypt for 5000 years. For many centuries glass was worked by drawing the molten material from a furnace. The glass was then rolled out or pressed into appropriate moulds and finally shaped by cutting and grinding.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Adding different metallic compounds to the melt, various coloured glasses can be manufactured. The blue colour was obtained by the addition of cobalt. Copper gives blue or red and iron or chromium produced green. In the fifteenth century, white opaque glass was produced by the addition of tin or arsenic. In the seventeenth century, ruby-red glass was made with the addition of gold chloride. Clear glass could be obtained by using antimony or manganese as a de-colourizer to remove the green colouration caused by iron impurities within the sand.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the late twentieth century, with the advent of fully glazed facades, the construction industry has become a major consumer of new glass. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>MANUFACTURE</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Soda lime silicate glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Modern glass is manufactured from sand (silica), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone (calcium carbonate), with small additions of salt cake (calcium sulfate) and dolomite (magnesium limestone). This gives a final composition of typically 70–74% silica, 12–16% sodium oxide, 5–12% calcium oxide, and 2–5% magnesium oxide with small quantities of aluminium, iron, and potassium oxides. The addition of 25% broken glass or <em>cullet </em>to the furnace mix accelerates the melting process and recycles the production waste. The production process is relatively energy intensive at 15,000 kWh/m<sup>3</sup>.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alkaline earth silicate, borosilicate, and ceramic glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Alkaline earth silicate and borosilicate glasses are also used in the construction field. These have considerably different chemical compositions, and, give their particular physical properties. The composition of alkaline earth silicate glass is typically 55–70% silica, 5–14% potassium oxide, 3–12% calcium oxide, and 0–15% aluminium oxide, with quantities of zirconium, strontium, and barium oxides.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Borosilicate glass is typically 70–87% silica, 0–8% sodium oxide, 0–8% potassium oxide, 7–15% boron oxide, and 0–8% aluminium oxide, with small quantities of other oxides. A particular characteristic of borosilicate glass is that it has a coefficient of expansion of one-third that of standard soda lime silicate glass. This property makes it considerably more resistant to thermal shock in case of fire.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass-ceramics have a zero coefficient of expansion. It makes them highly resistant to thermal shock. The composition of glass ceramics is complex comprising typically 50–80% silica, and 15–27% alumina, with small quantities of sodium oxide, potassium oxide, barium oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, zinc oxide, lithium oxide, and other minor constituents.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The glass is initially produced by a standard float or rolling technique, but subsequent heat treatment converts part of the normal glassy phase into a fine-grained crystalline form, giving rise to particular physical properties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FORMING PROCESSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Early methods</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initially, crown glass was formed by spinning a 4 kg cylindrical gob of molten glass on the end of a blowpipe. The solid glass was blown, flattened out, and then transferred to a solid iron rod<em>. </em>After reheating it was spun until it opened out into a 1.5 m diameter disc. The process involved considerable wastage including the bullion in the center.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An alternative process involved the blowing of a glass cylinder which was then split open and flattened out in a kiln. Subsequently, in a major development, circular metal bait was lowered into a pot of molten glass and withdrawn slowly, dragging up a cylindrical ribbon of glass 13 m high, the diameter of the cylinder being maintained with compressed air. The completed cylinder was then detached, opened up, and flattened out to produce flat window glass.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>With the development of the Fourcault process in Belgium and the Colburn process in America that it became possible to produce flat glass directly. A straight bait was drawn vertically out of the molten glass to produce a ribbon of glass, which was then drawn directly up a tower, or in the Colburn process turned horizontally, through a series of rollers; finally, appropriate lengths were cut off. However, such drawn sheet glass suffered from manufacturing distortions. This problem was overcome by the production of plate glass, which involved horizontal casting and rolling, followed by grinding to remove distortions and polishing to give a clear, transparent but expensive product. The plate glass manufacturing process is now practically obsolete. It has been replaced by the <em>float process.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>FLOAT GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1811,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/FLOAT-GLASS-1024x339.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1811\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A furnace produces a continuous supply of molten glass at approximately 1100°C, which flows across the surface of a large shallow bath of molten tin contained within an atmosphere of hydrogen and nitrogen (this prevents oxidation of the surface of the molten metal). The glass ribbon moves across the molten metal, initially at a sufficiently high temperature for the irregularities on both surfaces to become evened out leaving a flat and parallel ribbon of glass. The temperature of the glass is gradually reduced as it moves forward until, at the end of the molten tin, it is sufficiently solid at 600°C not to be distorted when supported on rollers. Thickness is controlled by the speed at which the glass is drawn from the bath. Any residual stresses are removed as the glass passes through the 200 m annealing lehr or furnace, leaving a fire-polished material. Then, the glass is washed, and substandard material is discarded for recycling. The computer-controlled cutting, firstly across the ribbon, then the removal of the edges, is followed by stacking, warehousing, and dispatch.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Float glass for the construction industry is made within the thickness range of 2–25 mm, although 0.5 mm is available for the electronics industry. Many surface-modified glasses are produced by incorporating metal ions into the glass within the float process. Body-tinted glass, which is of uniform colour, is manufactured by blending additional metal oxides into the standard melt.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>NON-SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass fibres</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Continuous filament</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Continuous glass fibres are manufactured by constantly feeding molten glass from a furnace into a forehearth fitted with 1600 accurately manufactured holes. Molten glass is drawn through these holes, at a rate of several thousand metres per second. The fibres are as small as 9 microns in diameter. They pass over a size applicator and are gathered together as a bundle before to being wound up on a collet. The material may then be used as rovings, chopped strand, or woven strand mats for the production of glass-fibre reinforced materials such as GRP (glass-fibre reinforced polyester), GRC (glass-fibre reinforced cement), or GRG (glass-fibre reinforced gypsum).</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass wool</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass wool is used as an insulation material.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Cast glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass may be cast and pressed into shape for glass blocks and extruded sections.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Profiled sections</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Profile trough sections in clear or colored 6 or 7 mm cast glass are manufactured in sizes ranging from 232 to 498 mm wide, 41 and 60 mm deep, and up to 7 m long, with or without stainless steel longitudinal wires. The system can be used horizontally or vertically, as single or double glazing, and as a roofing system spanning up to 3 m.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1812,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Profiled-sections.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1812\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A large radius curve is possible as well as the normal straight butt jointed system. The joints are sealed with a one-part translucent silicone.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Amber or blue-tinted versions are available for solar control or aesthetic reasons. The double-glazed system produces a sound reduction within the 100–3200 Hz range of typically 40 dB.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The incorporation of 16-mm-thick translucent aerogel-insulated polycarbonate panels into profiled trough sections significantly increases the thermal insulating properties of the units. Airborne sound insulation is enhanced. Light transmission through the translucent aerogel panels is approximately 50%.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Glass blocks</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks for non-load-bearing walls and partitions are manufactured by casting two half blocks at 1050°C, joining them together at 800°C, followed by annealing at 560°C. The void space is partially evacuated. The standard blocks are 115, 190, 240, and 300 mm square with thicknesses of 80 and 100 mm, although rectangular and circular blocks are also available. The variety of patterns offering differing degrees of privacy includes clear, frosted, and crystal designs with colours from blue, green, and grey to pink and gold. For exterior and fire-retarding applications natural or coloured mortar (2 parts Portland cement, 1 part lime, 8 parts sand) is used for the jointing. Walls may be straight or curved. Bullet-proof blocks are available for higher security situations. For interior use, blocks can be laid with sealant rather than mortar.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass blocks jointed with mortar give a fire resistance of 30 or 60 minutes of stability and integrity but not insulation. Fire stop blocks (F-30) manufactured from 26 mm rather than 8 mm glass offer increased fire protection of two hours’ integrity and 30 minutes’ thermal insulation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SHEET PRODUCTS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Standard float glass sizes</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The standard thicknesses for float glass are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19, and 25 mm to maximum sheet sizes of 3 to 12 m. Thicker grades are available in smaller sheet sizes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Traditional blown and drawn glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Traditional blown and drawn glasses are available commercially both clear and in a wide range of colours. Drawn glass up to 1600 - 1200 mm is optically clear but varies in thickness from 3 to 5 mm. It is normally used for conservation work where old glass requires replacement. The blown glass contains variable quantities of air bubbles. Also, it has significant variations in thickness giving an antique appearance.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Curved sheet glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Curved glass can be manufactured by heating annealed glass to approximately 600°C when it softens and sag-bends to the shape of the supporting mould. Sheets up to 3 m - 4 m can be bent with curvature in either one or two directions. Bent glass can subsequently be sandblasted, toughened, or laminated, even incorporating coloured interlayers if required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Self-cleaning glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Self-cleaning glass has an invisible hard coating of 15 microns thick. These coatings include two special features. The surface incorporating titanium dioxide is photocatalytic. It absorbs ultraviolet light, which with oxygen from the air breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. Furthermore, the surface is hydrophilic. It causes rainwater to spread evenly over the surface, rather than running down in droplets. Therefore, the surface is uniformly washed and prevents any unsightly streaks or spots from appearing when the surface dries. Self-cleaning glass has a somewhat greater mirror effect than ordinary float glass, with a faint blue tint. It is available as normal annealed glass also in toughened or laminated form. The surface coating, which reduces the transmittance of the glass by about 5%, is tough but as with any glass can be damaged by scratching. A blue solar control version reduces the solar heat gain by approximately 60% depending upon the thickness of the glass used and its combination in a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Clear white glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard float glass is somewhat greener due to the effect of iron oxide impurities in the key raw material sand. However, clear white glass can be produced, at a greater cost, by using purified ingredients. The light transmittance of clear white glass is approximately 2% greater than standard glass for 4 and 6 mm glazing.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Embossed pattern glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A wide range of 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm patterned glass is commercially available. The degree of privacy afforded by the various glasses is not only dependent upon the pattern but also upon the relative lighting levels on either side and the proximity of any object to the glass. Patterned glasses may be toughened, laminated, or incorporated into double-glazing units for thermal, acoustic, or safety considerations.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Screen printed glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>White or coloured ceramic frit is screen printed onto clear or tinted float glass. It is then toughened and heat soaked, causing the ceramic enamel to fuse permanently into the glass surface. Standard patterns or individual designs may be created, giving the required level of solar transmission and privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Decorative etched and sandblasted glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Acid etched glass, 4 mm and 6 mm in thickness, is available to a maximum sheet size of 2140 – 1320 mm with a small range of patterns. Etched glasses need to be handled carefully on-site, as oil, grease, and finger marks are difficult to remove completely. Similar visual effects can be achieved by sandblasting techniques, but it gives the surface finish less smooth. Patterns may be clear on a frosted background or the reverse, depending upon the aesthetic effect and level of privacy required.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Georgian wired glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Georgian wired glass is produced by rolling a sandwich of a 13 mm electrically welded steel wire mesh between two ribbons of molten glass. This produces the standard cast 7 mm sheet, suitable when obscuration is required. Wired glass is not stronger than the equivalent thickness of annealed glass. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1821,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Georgian-wired-glass.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1821\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, when cracked, the pieces remain held together. On exposure to fire, the wire mesh dissipates some heat, but ultimately Georgian glass will crack, particularly if sprayed with water when hot. Accidental damage may cause the breakage of the glass. But again it is retained in position by the mesh, at least until the wires are affected by corrosion.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Toughened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass is up to four or five times stronger than standard annealed glass of the same thickness. It is produced by subjecting preheated annealed glass at 650°C to rapid surface cooling by the application of jets of air. This causes the outer faces to be set in compression with balancing tension forces within the centre of the glass. As cracking within glass commences with tensile failure at the surface, much greater force can be withstood before this critical point is reached. Toughened glass cannot be cut or worked. Therefore all necessary cutting, drilling of holes, and grinding or polishing of edges must be completed in advance of the toughening process.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1819,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Toughned-glass.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1819\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Toughened glass will withstand considerable extremes of temperature and sudden shock temperatures. When broken, it shatters into small granules. This is not likely to cause serious injuries related to the accidental breakage of annealed glass. Any standard float, coated, roughcast, and patterned glasses can be toughened.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Heat-strengthened glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Heat-strengthened glass is manufactured by a similar process to toughening, but with a slower rate of cooling which produces only half the strength of toughened glass. On severe impact, heat-strengthened glass breaks into large pieces like annealed glass. Therefore it cannot be considered a safety glass. Heat-strengthened glass is frequently used in laminated glass where the residual strength after fracture gives some integrity to the laminate. Typical applications include locations where resistance to wind pressure is necessary, such as the upper storeys and corners of high buildings.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Laminated glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Laminated glass is produced by bonding two or more layers of glass together with a plastic interlayer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) sheet or a polymethyl methacrylate low-viscosity resin. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1817,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass-2-585x1024.png\" alt=\"Anti bandit glass\" class=\"wp-image-1817\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The lamination process increases the impact resistance compared to annealed glass of the same thickness. Furthermore on impact, whilst the glass laminations crack, they do so without splintering or disintegration, being held together by the interlayer. Therefore, laminated glass can be defined as <em>safety glass</em>. The impact resistance of laminated glass may be increased using thicker interlayers or increasing the number of laminates or the inclusion of polycarbonate sheets. Typically, anti-bandit glass has two or three glass laminates while, depending on the anticipated caliber and muzzle velocity,</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>bullet-resistant glass has four or more glass laminates. To prevent spalling, the rear face of bullet-resistant glass may be sealed with a scratch-resistant polyester film and for fire protection</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Insulating glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Insulating glasses are manufactured from float glass laminated with either intumescent or gel materials. Intumescent laminated glass has clear interlayers. When exposed to fire, intumescent or gel materials expand to a white opaque material, preventing the passage of conductive and radiant heat. The glass layers adjacent to the fire crack but retain integrity owing to their adhesion with the interlayers. The fire resistance, ranging between 30 and 120 minutes for insulation and integrity, depends on the number of laminations, usually between 3 and 5.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":1816,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https://civilengineeringlectures.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Laminated-glass.png\" alt=\"Laminated glass\" class=\"wp-image-1816\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Fire-resistant glass with intumescent material laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>SPECIAL GLASSES</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>One-way observation glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Where unobserved surveillance is required, one-way observation mirror glass can be installed. To maintain privacy, the observer must be at an illumination level no greater than one-seventh that of the observed area and wear dark clothing. From the observed area, the one-way observation glass has the appearance of a normal mirror. One-way observation glass is available in annealed, toughened, or laminated.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Mirror glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Standard mirror glass is manufactured by the chemical deposition onto float glass of a thin film of silver, from aqueous silver and copper salt solutions. The film is then protected with two coats of paint or a plastic layer. Mirror glass is produced by the online application of a three-layer coating of silicon-silica-silicon, which acts by optical interference to give the mirror effect.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Alarm glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><strong>&nbsp;</strong>Glass containing either a ceramic loop or a series of straight wires can be incorporated into an intruder alarm system, which is activated when the glass is broken. Usually, straight-wired alarm glass is incorporated into a laminated system, while a ceramic loop circuit would be fixed to the inner face of the toughened outer pane within a double-glazing system.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electrically-heatable laminated safety glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It incorporates fine electrically conducting wires which may be switched on when there is a risk of condensation. Typical applications are in areas of high humidity, such as swimming pools, kitchens, and glass roofs, particularly when there are significant differences between the internal and external temperatures.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electromagnetic radiation-shielding glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Itcan be used to protect building zones containing magnetically stored data from accidental or deliberate corruption by external electric fields. For maximum security, the conducting laminates within the composite glass should be in full peripheral electrical contact with the metal window frames and the surrounding wall surface screening.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>X-ray protection glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It contains 70% lead oxide, which produces significant shielding against ionizing radiation. The glass is amber in colour due to the high lead content. A 6 mm sheet of this lead glass has the equivalent shielding effect of a 2 mm lead sheet against radiation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Variable transmission (smart) glasses</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Variable transmission or <em>smart </em>glasses change their optical and thermal characteristics under the influence of light (photochromic), heat (thermochromic), or electric potential (electrochromic). These glasses offer the potential of highly responsive dynamic climate control to building facades. These smart materials including thermotropic products are also available as plastic laminates for incorporation into laminated glass systems.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Electro-optic laminates</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Electrically operated vision-control glass consists of a laminated system of glass and polyvinyl butyral layers containing a polymer-dispersed liquid crystal layer, which can be electrically switched from transparent to white/translucent for privacy.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Conventional glass coatings reduce both light and heat transmission. However, a coating based on tungsten-modified vanadium dioxide allows visible light through at all times but reflects infrared radiation at temperatures above 29°C. Thus, at this temperature, further heat penetration through the glass is blocked. Therefore the intelligent glass, which has a slight yellow/green colour, admits useful solar gain in cooler conditions but cuts out excessive infrared solar gain under hot conditions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"level\":3} -->\n<h3><strong>Intelligent glass facades</strong></h3>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>An intelligent glass building facade changes its physical properties, in response to sensors detecting the external light and weather conditions, thus reducing the energy consumption necessary to maintain the appropriate internal environment. Therefore intelligent facades have ecological significance in reducing global greenhouse emissions and also in reducing operational building costs to clients and users.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>STRUCTURAL GLASS</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Glass columns are frequently used as fins to restrain excessive deflection caused by wind and other lateral loads to glass facades. The fixings between the façade glazing and fin units are usually stainless steel clamps bolted through preformed holes in the toughened or laminated glass, although silicone adhesives can also be used. A soft interlayer between the metal fixing and the glass is incorporated to prevent stress concentrations on the glass surface and to allow for differential thermal movement between the glass and metal. Glass is strong in compression and therefore an appropriate material for load-bearing columns and walls, providing that the design ensures sufficient strength, stiffness, and stability. <strong></strong></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Glass - as construction material', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1809-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-25 23:14:59', '2023-02-25 17:44:59', '', 1809, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1822', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1574, 1, '2021-08-23 23:46:02', '2021-08-23 18:16:02', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, before their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete walls, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The accepted practice is that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'publish', 'open', 'open', '', 'daywork', '', '', '2021-08-24 11:00:50', '2021-08-24 05:30:50', '', 0, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1574', 0, 'post', '', 0),
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(1576, 1, '2021-08-23 23:46:02', '2021-08-23 18:16:02', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, prior to their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily, for example, cut and open already constructed concrete wall under variation order, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc,.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is the accepted practice that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be significantly enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-23 23:46:02', '2021-08-23 18:16:02', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1576', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(1583, 1, '2021-08-24 10:20:16', '2021-08-24 04:50:16', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the modern world, construction projects have become inevitably complex due to the dynamic business and technology-oriented environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Major improvements in nowadays construction projects are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Great deal of inputs involvement,</li><li>Accretion of numerous parties engaged,</li><li>Variety of technological attachment.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Poor stakeholder relationship frequently leads to many conflicts during the construction. Its ultimate results could be an origination of disputes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes derive to:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Additional <strong>cost </strong>involvement,</li><li>Additional <strong>time</strong> involvement,</li><li>Damaging the <strong>reputation </strong>of the company,</li><li>Depression in <strong>socio-economy</strong> in the country,</li><li>Spoiling stakeholders <strong>relationship.</strong></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes are widespread in every construction project due to ever-rising customer requirements and the number of stakeholder involvements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a common problem in the construction industry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These dispute needs to be managed by experienced and expert personnel through appropriate actions and strategies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, dispute handling may require the involvement of dispute management experts who has specific skills and competencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Primary causes for dispute occurrence</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Erroneous contract interpretation,</li><li>Drafting of ambiguous documentation,</li><li>Lack of information and project scope,</li><li>Issues regarding progress and quality,</li><li>Probable issues regarding adequate and timely payments, etc.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Root causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Unfair risk allocation among parties,</li><li>Unrealistic time/cost/quality targets set by the client,</li><li>Adversarial industry culture,</li><li>Inappropriate contract type,</li><li>Unrealistic information expectations.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Proximate causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Inadequate brief,</li><li>Slow client responses,</li><li>Inaccurate design information,</li><li>Inaccurate design documentation,</li><li>Inappropriate contract form,</li><li>Inadequate contract administration,</li><li>Inappropriate contractor selection.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Handling Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Dispute Management</li><li>Dispute avoidance</li><li>Dispute Resolution</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Management</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"left\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">Dispute management is a process of problem identification, quantification, and resolution. It involves developing a system that includes defining a set of skills required to minimize the possibility of disputes occurring, and managing them effectively without escalation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It needs proactive measures rather than reactive in dispute resolution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is effective in providing a solution for disputes. Its primary focus should be on managing and controlling the causes of disputes. Therefore, the involvement of key project players with skill, knowledge, and experience is essential in the dispute identification stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, concentrating solely to avoid conflicts before it escalates into a major dispute may be a great comfort to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Avoidance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For avoiding disputes, a careful investigation and complete awareness of the project are necessary. Dispute avoidance is to handle and resolve conflict before disputes occur or before it escalates into a major disagreement or dispute.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initial involvement in the project may bring all means of settling issues to avoid disputes, consistent with the requirements of the client.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, a simplistic and straightforward approach of care and management in the preparation of documentation without ambiguity may avoid disputes at later stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute resolution arises only when there is a dispute and reference is made to resolve it. Disputes can be resolved in many ways using various procedures, such as by court proceedings, using other formal or informal settings involving Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR methods include dispute resolving processes and techniques that fall outside of the government judicial processes.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instead of time consuming and expensive litigation process, ADR methods were introduced to provide effective and efficient solutions for disputes. ADR methods eliminate most of the undesirable features of litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it is advisable to resolve disputes with the ‘‘least possible intervention by an outside third party’’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR popularity has increased due to its flexibility, cost-effectiveness of the process, and ability to bring a speedy conclusion to the problem.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dispute resolution in Construction Projects', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1564-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:20:16', '2021-08-24 04:50:16', '', 1564, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1583', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1580, 1, '2021-08-24 10:01:13', '2021-08-24 04:31:13', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Sub-Clause 13.6 – FIDIC 1999</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a Variation shall be executed on a daywork basis.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The work shall then be valued in accordance with the Daywork Schedule included in the Contract, and the following procedure shall apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>If a Daywork Schedule is not included in the Contract, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Before ordering Goods for the work, the Contractor shall submit quotations to the Engineer.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>When applying for payment, the Contractor shall submit invoices, vouchers, and accounts or receipts for any Goods.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>Except for any items for which the Daywork Schedule specifies that payment is not due, the Contractor shall deliver each day to the Engineer accurate statements in duplicate which shall include the following details of the resources used in executing the previous day’s work:</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(a) the names, occupations, and time of Contractor’s Personnel,</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(b) the identification, type, and time of Contractor’s Equipment and Temporary Works, and</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>(c) the quantities and types of Plant and Materials used.</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>One copy of each statement will, if correct, or when agreed, be signed by the Engineer and returned to the Contractor. The Contractor shall then submit priced statements of these resources to the Engineer, prior to their inclusion in the next Statement under Sub-Clause 14.3 [Application for Interim Payment Certificates].</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For work of a minor or incidental nature, the Engineer may instruct that a variation be executed on a daywork basis to be valued in accordance with the daywork schedule included in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Usually, Daywork is ordered for work that cannot be measured easily. For example, the variation order may be for cut and open already constructed concrete wall, and make good all damaged surfaces, etc. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The labour, materials, and construction equipment involved in the work should be recorded with the information listed in Sub-Clause 13.6 daily and signed by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Before the contractor prepares the next payment statement under sub-clause 14.3 – application for interim payment certificates - a priced summary of the daywork should be submitted to the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Contractor is paid at the rates stated in the Daywork Schedule.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If no Daywork Schedule is included in the Contract, payments cannot be made on a Daywork basis. Therefore it is important to include the Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, completed by the Contractor and included in the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Subsequent addition of a Daywork Schedule to the Contract will require the Employer’s agreement.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no Daywork Schedule in the Tender Documents, it is appropriate that the Contractor requests the Engineer to clarify matters, or the alternative would be to include his Daywork schedule by the Tenderer. However, it depends on the precise wording of the Instructions to Bidders.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is the accepted practice that the costs of miscellaneous hand tools, protective clothing, etc., are to be included in the daywork - labour rates.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Tenderers should clarify the cost of transporting workers (including idle time) to the place where the daywork will be executed, whether it is to form part of the labour rates or whether the transport and driver will be paid for separately.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>If there is no separate provision for these costs, then the daywork - labour rates will need to be significantly enhanced to cover these costs.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Frequently site disputes arise concerning the value and applicability of unit rates for labour.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Therefore always check the pricing preambles in the Daywork Schedule to identify inclusions and exclusions.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is good practice to use standard forms to record daywork.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Make aware the site supervisors ‘how to record and what to record’, to avoid subsequent disputes and difficulties.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineer needs to accurately make the daywork record sheets and the quantity surveyor to accurately price them.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The site engineers should familiarize themselves with the daywork schedule included in the contract. He has to ensure that all reimbursable items are included on the agreed record sheets.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The contractor’s quantity surveyor should ensure that the rates under Dayworks are calculated accurately in accordance with the definitions in the contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, if the engineer/engineer’s assistants cannot agree that the work as additional work, then the records should be checked daily and signed stating ‘Agreed for record purposes only’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In practice, the Daywork Schedule in the contract may not be fully comprehensive and will not include all the types of labour and construction equipment on site.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Daywork', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1574-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:01:13', '2021-08-24 04:31:13', '', 1574, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1580', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1582, 1, '2021-08-24 10:18:01', '2021-08-24 04:48:01', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the modern world, construction projects have become inevitably complex due to the dynamic business and technology-oriented environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Major improvements in nowadays construction projects are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Great deal of inputs involvement,</li><li>Accretion of numerous parties engaged,</li><li>Variety of technological attachment.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Poor stakeholder relationship frequently leads to many conflicts during the construction. Its ultimate results could be an origination of disputes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes derive to:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Additional <strong>cost </strong>involvement,</li><li>Additional <strong>time</strong> involvement,</li><li>Damaging the <strong>reputation </strong>of the company,</li><li>Depression in <strong>socio-economy</strong> in the country,</li><li>Spoiling stakeholders <strong>relationship.</strong></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes are widespread in every construction project due to ever-rising customer requirements and the number of stakeholder involvements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a common problem in the construction industry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These dispute needs to be managed by experienced and expert personnel through appropriate actions and strategies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, dispute handling may require the involvement of dispute management experts who has specific skills and competencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Primary causes for dispute occurrence</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Erroneous contract interpretation,</li><li>Drafting of ambiguous documentation,</li><li>Lack of information and project scope,</li><li>Issues regarding progress and quality,</li><li>Probable issues regarding adequate and timely payments, etc.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Root causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Unfair risk allocation among parties,</li><li>Unrealistic time/cost/quality targets set by the client,</li><li>Adversarial industry culture,</li><li>Inappropriate contract type,</li><li>Unrealistic information expectations.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Proximate causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Inadequate brief,</li><li>Slow client responses,</li><li>Inaccurate design information,</li><li>Inaccurate design documentation,</li><li>Inappropriate contract form,</li><li>Inadequate contract administration,</li><li>Inappropriate contractor selection.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Handling Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Dispute Management</li><li>Dispute avoidance</li><li>Dispute Resolution</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Management</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"left\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">Dispute management is a process of problem identification, quantification, and resolution. It involves developing a system that includes defining a set of skills required to minimize the possibility of disputes occurring, and managing them effectively without escalation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It needs proactive measures rather than reactive in dispute resolution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is effective in providing a solution for disputes. Its primary focus should be on managing and controlling the causes of disputes. Therefore, the involvement of key project players with skill, knowledge, and experience is essential in the dispute identification stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, concentrating solely to avoid conflicts before it escalates into a major dispute may be a great comfort to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Avoidance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For avoiding disputes, a careful investigation and complete awareness of the project are necessary. Dispute avoidance is to handle and resolve conflict before disputes occur or before it escalates into a major disagreement or dispute.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initial involvement in the project may bring all means of settling issues to avoid disputes, consistent with the requirements of the client.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, a simplistic and straightforward approach of care and management in the preparation of documentation without ambiguity may avoid disputes at later stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute resolution arises only when there is a dispute and reference is made to resolve it. Disputes can be resolved in many ways using various procedures, such as by court proceedings, using other formal or informal settings involving Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR methods include dispute resolving processes and techniques that fall outside of the government judicial processes.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instead of time consuming and expensive litigation process, ADR methods were introduced to provide effective and efficient solutions for disputes. ADR methods eliminate most of the undesirable features of litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it is advisable to resolve disputes with the ‘‘least possible intervention by an outside third party’’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR popularity has increased due to its flexibility, cost-effectiveness of the process, and ability to bring a speedy conclusion to the problem.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dispute resolution in Construction Projects', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1564-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:18:01', '2021-08-24 04:48:01', '', 1564, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1582', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1584, 1, '2021-08-24 10:21:59', '2021-08-24 04:51:59', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In the modern world, construction projects have become inevitably complex due to the dynamic business and technology-oriented environment.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Major improvements in nowadays construction projects are;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Great deal of inputs involvement,</li><li>Accretion of numerous parties engaged,</li><li>Variety of technological attachment.&nbsp;</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Poor stakeholder relationship frequently leads to many conflicts during the construction. Its ultimate results could be an origination of disputes.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes derive to:</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Additional <strong>cost </strong>involvement,</li><li>Additional <strong>time</strong> involvement,</li><li>Damaging the <strong>reputation </strong>of the company,</li><li>Depression in <strong>socio-economy</strong> in the country,</li><li>Spoiling stakeholders <strong>relationship.</strong></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Disputes are widespread in every construction project due to ever-rising customer requirements and the number of stakeholder involvements.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is a common problem in the construction industry.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>These dispute needs to be managed by experienced and expert personnel through appropriate actions and strategies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, dispute handling may require the involvement of dispute management experts who has specific skills and competencies.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Primary causes for dispute occurrence</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Erroneous contract interpretation,</li><li>Drafting of ambiguous documentation,</li><li>Lack of information and project scope,</li><li>Issues regarding progress and quality,</li><li>Probable issues regarding adequate and timely payments, etc.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Root causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Unfair risk allocation among parties,</li><li>Unrealistic time/cost/quality targets set by the client,</li><li>Adversarial industry culture,</li><li>Inappropriate contract type,</li><li>Unrealistic information expectations.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Proximate causes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Inadequate brief,</li><li>Slow client responses,</li><li>Inaccurate design information,</li><li>Inaccurate design documentation,</li><li>Inappropriate contract form,</li><li>Inadequate contract administration,</li><li>Inappropriate contractor selection.</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>Handling Disputes</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Dispute Management</li><li>Dispute avoidance</li><li>Dispute Resolution</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Management</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph {\"align\":\"left\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">Dispute management is a process of problem identification, quantification, and resolution. It involves developing a system that includes defining a set of skills required to minimize the possibility of disputes occurring, and managing them effectively without escalation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It needs proactive measures rather than reactive in dispute resolution.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute management is effective in providing a solution for disputes. Its primary focus should be on managing and controlling the causes of disputes. Therefore, the involvement of key project players with skill, knowledge, and experience is essential in the dispute identification stage.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concentrating solely to avoid conflicts before it escalates into a major dispute may be a great comfort to the project.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Avoidance</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For avoiding disputes, a careful investigation and complete awareness of the project are necessary. Dispute avoidance is to handle and resolve conflict before disputes occur or before it escalates into a major disagreement or dispute.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Initial involvement in the project may bring all means of settling issues to avoid disputes, consistent with the requirements of the client.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For example, a simplistic and straightforward approach of care and management in the preparation of documentation without ambiguity may avoid disputes at later stages.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>Dispute Resolution</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Dispute resolution arises only when there is a dispute and reference is made to resolve it. Disputes can be resolved in many ways using various procedures, such as by court proceedings, using other formal or informal settings involving Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR methods include dispute resolving processes and techniques that fall outside of the government judicial processes.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Instead of time consuming and expensive litigation process, ADR methods were introduced to provide effective and efficient solutions for disputes. ADR methods eliminate most of the undesirable features of litigation.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>However, it is advisable to resolve disputes with the ‘‘least possible intervention by an outside third party’’.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>ADR popularity has increased due to its flexibility, cost-effectiveness of the process, and ability to bring a speedy conclusion to the problem.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Dispute resolution in Construction Projects', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1564-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:21:59', '2021-08-24 04:51:59', '', 1564, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1584', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1585, 1, '2021-08-24 10:27:09', '2021-08-24 04:57:09', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is he empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs, affecting payment. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an Interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:27:09', '2021-08-24 04:57:09', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1585', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(1590, 1, '2021-08-24 10:31:07', '2021-08-24 05:01:07', '<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>“The Engineer” in accordance with most Standard Forms of contract performs;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - the dual function of the “Agent” of the employer, and </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>                         - impartial expert professional who enjoys quasi-judicial powers in administering the Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The ICTAD Condition of Contract in Sri Lanka identifies the Engineer’s powers, duties, and responsibilities as follows:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>    The Engineers shall carry out such duties in issuing decisions, certificates, and orders as specified in the contract subject to the limitation stated in the Particular Condition of Contract.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   The Engineer is not a signatory or party to a Contract. But, the Engineer is named in the Contract and thereby given many duties and responsibilities requiring his expertise in technical design and management. </p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>   He can vary the method of construction of the works to achieve completion but under no circumstances is empowered to alter the contract made between the employer and the contractor. He can only implement it in accordance with the terms, which the parties thereto have agreed.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>There can be several supplementary conditions imposed upon the Engineer by the Employer whereby he cannot exercise all of his duties without restraint.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Employer may often wish to be a participant in decision-making, particularly in affairs affecting payments. In the event of the Engineer being required under the employer for the execution of any part of these duties, then such requirements which affect his responsibility will be set out in the conditions of contract and so be known to the contractor at the time of tender.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is delegated certain duties and responsibilities which include the issuing of instructions, directions, orders, and the giving of information necessary for the construction of the Works to proceed. These responsibilities also require him to comment upon the Contractor’s proposals for carrying out the work and require him to ensure that the workmanship and materials are in accordance with specifications.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>He determines the measurement and value of work performed by the Contractor and Nominated Sub-Contractor and, in his own right, issues a Certificate of Payment to the Employer stating any payment due to them on both an Interim and final basis. It is not the Contractor’s application for payment which the Employer recognizes but only the Certificate of Payment as issued by the Engineer.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In order that the Engineer can carry out his duties it is permissible for him to delegate in writing to the Engineer’s Representatives any of the powers and authority vested in him by the Employer.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It would be unacceptable for him to delegate all of his powers to an Engineer’s Representative because this would effectively remove from the Contract the expertise in technical design and management of the Engineer himself.</em> He is obliged to provide the Contractor and the Employer with a copy of all such written delegations of powers and authorities he gives to his Representatives.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>It is required by the Conditions of Contract that the Engineer’s Representative is responsible to the Engineer only, notwithstanding that he could be an employee of the Employer and not the Engineer.</em>&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The duties of the Engineer’s Representative are to watch and supervise the work and to ensure that the standards of workmanship employed are in accordance with the specifications.&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p><em>The Engineer’s Representative has no authority to relieve the Contractor of any of his duties or obligations under the Contract.&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It is becoming a customary practice that the Engineer will not delegate to the Engineer’s Representative any matters dealing with;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>Variation Orders</li><li>Engineer’s Certificates</li><li>Fixing of Rates</li><li>Expenditure of Provisional Sums</li><li>Approval of Nominated Sub-Contractors</li><li>Extension of Time</li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer’s Post-Contract Administrative Functions</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer’s post-contract administrative functions could be summarized as follows;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list {\"ordered\":true} -->\n<ol><li>Explaining ambiguities and discrepancies in Contract Documents issuing instruction thereon and certifying an additional cost to comply with such instructions.</li><li>Supplying drawings and instructions.</li><li>Certifying the Contractors additional cost, due to adverse physical conditions.</li><li>Reviewing and approving the Contractor’s programme.</li><li>Suspension of work and determining extra payments arising from such suspension.</li><li>Determining extension of time for completion of work.</li><li>Determining whether the work has been substantially completed and issuing the Certificate of Completion.</li><li>Ordering variation, to the work and fixing rates and prices for such variations.</li><li>Ascertaining and determining by measurement the value of work performed.</li><li>Issuing the Maintenance Certificate.</li><li>Setting in the first instance, any dispute in connection with or arising out of the Contract or execution of the works (Engineer’s obligation).</li></ol>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is primarily responsible for post-contract administration duties. In large and complex works he is assisted by a team of other professionals and technical officers who attend to duties related to their respective disciplines.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The Engineer is the team Leader. He may delegate certain duties and functions to his representative. Other members of the team have specific duties to perform.&nbsp;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading -->\n<h2><strong>The Engineer (Under the Contract)</strong></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>In addition to directing and coordinating the work of his team, he will be responsible among other things, for the following;</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><li>The overall implementation of the Project in accordance with the Contract.&nbsp;</li><li>The preparation of accurate documentation relating to interim payments.</li><li>His duties will also include;&nbsp;<ul><li>Watch and Supervise the work</li><li>Request that workmanship be tested</li><li>Inspect and approve, or disapprove, work or materials</li><li>Receive notices and information from the Contractor</li><li>Check and approve setting out, without relieving the Contractor of any responsibility</li><li>Inspect Contractors’ insurance policies and premium receipts.</li><li>Issue instructions and requests to the Contractor</li><li>Inspect and approve or disapprove temporary works</li><li>Authorize additional working hours to meet completion dates</li><li>Liaise with all relevant parties in all matters about the Contract</li><li>Supervise the preparation of records and drawings of works executed</li><li>Supervise the preparation of the following site records<ul><li>Progress Chart</li><li>Records of all the materials tested</li><li>Daily weather records and their effect on job progress</li><li>Record of Inspection Requests and approvals</li><li>Variation orders</li><li>Monthly Valuations</li><li>Weekly Progress Reports</li><li>Agenda and minutes of all meetings</li><li>Progress Photographs</li><li>Record of any dewatering operations necessary due to presence of groundwater and their effect on contract progress</li><li>Site Diary with daily entries recording all relevant information regarding site progress including</li></ul></li><li>Precise description, extent, and duration of work executed in various locations</li><li>Summary of labor and plant utilized</li><li>The effect of weather on the works</li><li>Details of accidents, damage, and complaints</li><li>Details of any verbal instructions</li><li>Details of inspection, approvals, and disapproval</li><li>Summary of material deliveries</li><li>Summary of testing</li><li>Details of site visits</li></ul></li></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->', 'Duties, Powers, and Responsibilities of the Engineer', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '1569-revision-v1', '', '', '2021-08-24 10:31:07', '2021-08-24 05:01:07', '', 1569, 'https://civilengineeringlectures.com/?p=1590', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
